2013년 11월 27일 수요일

오후 8:43

By Effie Heavener

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About 'sir thomas aquinas'|A Defense of the Ecumenical Gathering at Assisi (Ecumenism in St. Thomas Aquinas) (Fr. Alfredo M. Morselli)







About 'sir thomas aquinas'|A Defense of the Ecumenical Gathering at Assisi (Ecumenism in St. Thomas Aquinas) (Fr. Alfredo M. Morselli)








Ｒａｌｐｈ               Ｗａｌｄｏ               Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ
Ｒｕｔｈ               Ｈａｓｋｉｎ               ｇａｖｅ               ｂｉｒｔｈ               ｔｏ               Ｒａｌｐｈ               Ｗａｌｄｏ               Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ               ｏｎ               Ｍａｎｙ               25,               1803.

Ｒａｌｐｈ               Ｗａｌｄｏ               Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ'ｓ               ｆａｔｈｅｒ,               Ｗｉｌｌｉａｍ               Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ               ｄｉｅｄ               ｏｆ               ｓｔｏｍａｃｈ               ｃａｎｃｅｒ               ｗｈｅｎ               ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｏｎｌｙ               ｅｉｇｈｔ               ｙｅａｒｓ               ｏｌｄ.

Ｈｅ               ｅｎｔｅｒｅｄ               Ｈａｒｖａｒｄ               ａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ａｇｅ               ｏｆ               ｆｏｕｒｔｅｅｎ               ａｎｄ               ｗａｓ               ａ               ｐｒｅａｃｈｅｒ               ａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ａｇｅ               ｏｆ               23.

Ｈｅ               ｍａｒｒｉｅｄ               Ｅｌｌｅｎ               Ｌｏｕｓｉｓａ               Ｔｕｃｋｅｒ               ｉｎ               1827,               ｗｈｏ               ｄｉｅｄ               ｏｆ               ｔｕｂｅｒｃｕｌｏｓｉｓ               ａｆｔｅｒ               ｔｗｏ               ｙｅａｒｓ.

Ｉｎ               1832,               Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ               ｒｅｓｉｇｎｅｄ               ａｓ               ｃｌｅｒｇｙｍａｎ               ａｎｄ               ｗｅｎｔ               ｔｏ               Ｅｕｒｏｐｅ               ｗｈｅｒｅ               ｈｅ               ｍｅｔ               Ｗｉｌｌｉａｍ               Ｗｏｒｄｓｗｏｒｔｈ.

Ｈｅ               ｗｅｎｔ               ｂａｃｋ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               Ｕｎｉｔｅｄ               Ｓｔａｔｅｓ               ｉｎ               1834.

Ｈｅ               ｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄ               Ｎａｔｕｒｅ               ｉｎ               1836.
Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ               ｉｓ               ｋｎｏｗｎ               ａｓ               ａ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｕｓ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｅｒ               ｗｈｏ               ｌｅｄ               Ｔｒａｎｓｃｅｎｄｅｎｔａｌｉｓｍ               ａｓ               ａ               ｍｏｖｅｍｅｎｔ               ｔｏ               ｇｏ               ｂｅｙｏｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｌｉｍｉｔａｔｉｏｎｓ               ｉｍｐｏｓｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ               ａｎｄ               ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｍｏｖｅｍｅｎｔ               ｂｅｌｉｅｖｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｏｇｍａｓ               ｉｍｐｏｓｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ａｒｅ               "ｄｅｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｖｅ               ｔｏ               ｈｕｍａｎ               ｆｒｅｅｄｏｍ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ"               (Ｖｏｎ               Ｄｅｈｓｅｎ               ｐ.

59).

Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ               ｃｏｉｎｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍ               "Ｏｅｒｓｏｕｌ"               ｔｏ               ｒｅｆｅｒ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｓｃｉｏｕｓｎｅｓｓ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｅ               ｔｈａｔ               ｃａｎ               ｂｅ               ｒｅａｃｈｅｄ               ｔｈｒｏｕｇｈ               ｔｒａｎｓｃｅｎｄｅｎｔａｌｉｓｍ.
Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               ｂｙ               "Ｉｓａａｃ               Ｎｅｗｔｏｎ'ｓ               ｍｅｃｈａｎｉｃａｌ               ｐｈｙｓｉｃ               ａｎｄ               Ｊｏｈｎ               Ｌｏｃｋｅ'ｓ               ｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｙ               ｏｆ               ｓｅｎｓａｔｉｏｎ"               (Ｖｏｎ               Ｄｅｈｓｅｎ               ｐ.

59).

Ｈｅ               ｐｒｏｍｏｔｅｓ               ｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌｉｓｍ               ｔｈａｔ               ｓｔｒｅｓｓｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｓｅｌｆ-ｒｅｌｉａｎｃｅ.

Ｏｎ               Ａｐｒｉｌ               27,               1882               Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ               ｄｉｅｄ               ｉｎ               Ｃｏｎｃｏｒｄ,               Ｍａｓｓａｃｈｕｓｅｔｔｓ.

Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｒｅｎｏｗｎｅｄ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｗｏ               ｉｄｅａｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｏｕｔｌｉｎｅｄ               ｈｉｓ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｆｉｒｓｔ               ｉｓ               ｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｅｄ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｈｕｍａｎ               ｓｐｉｒｉｔ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｓｅｃｏｎｄ               ｉｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｅｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｖｅ               ｅｆｆｅｃｔ               ｏｆ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｕｓ               ｄｏｇｍａｓ               ａｎｄ               ｓｏｃｉａｌ               ｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓ               ｔｏ               ｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌ               ｆｒｅｅｄｏｍ               ａｎｄ               ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ.
Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ'ｓ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               Ａｎｎｅ               Ｎａｅｓｓ,               ｗｈｏ               ｓｔａｒｔｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               Ｄｅｅｐ               Ｅｃｏｌｏｇｙ               ｍｏｖｅｍｅｎｔ.

Ｉｔ               ａｌｓｏ               ｈｅｌｐｓ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｒｅａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               Ｅｘｉｓｔｅｎｔｉａｌｉｓｍ               ｔｈａｔ               ｓｔｒｅｓｓｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙ               ａｎｄ               ａｂｉｌｉｔｙ               ｔｏ               ｃｈｏｏｓｅ.

Ｈｉｓ               ｐｏｅｍｓ               ｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄ               ｉｎ               Ｍａｙ-Ｄａｙ               ｇｒｅａｔｌｙ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               Ｗａｌｔ               Ｗｈｉｔｍａｎ,               Ｇｅｔｔｒｕｄｅ               Ｓｔｅｉｎ,               Ｒｏｂｅｒｔ               Ｆｒｏｓｔ,               ａｎｄ               Ｆｒａｎｋ               Ｌｌｏｙｄ               Ｗｒｉｇｈｔ.

Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ               ａｌｓｏ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               Ｆｒｉｅｄｒｉｃｈ               Ｗｉｌｈｅｌｍ               Ｎｉｅｔｚｓｃｈｅ               ｗｈｏ               ａｔｔａｃｋｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               Ｃｈｒｉｓｔｉａｎ               Ｇｏｄ               ｉｎ               ｈｉｓ               ｅｓｓａｙ,               "Ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｕｓ               Ｍｏｏｄ?"               Ｍｉｃｈａｅｌ               ｄｅ               Ｍｏｎｔａｉｇｎｅ               
               Ｂｏｒｎ               ｉｎ               Ｂｏｒｄｅａｕｘ,               ｔｏ               ａ               ｆａｍｉｌｙ               ｏｆ               ｐｕｂｌｉｃ               ｓｅｒｖａｎｔｓ               ｏｎ               Ｆｅｂｒｕａｒｙ               28,               1533,               Ｍｉｃｈａｅｌ               Ｅｙｑｕｅｍ               ｄｅ               Ｍｏｎｔａｉｇｎｅ               ｌｉｖｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｅｒｉｏｄ               ｏｆ               Ｆｒｅｎｃｈ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ.

Ｈｉｓ               ｍｏｔｈｅｒ               ｗａｓ               Ｓｐａｎｉｓｈ-Ｊｅｗｉｓｈ               Ａｎｔｏｉｎｅｔｔｅ               ｄｅ               Ｌｏｕｐｐｅｓ               ａｎｄ               ｈｉｓ               ｆａｔｈｅｒ,               Ｐｉｅｒｒｅ               Ｅｙｑｕｅｍ               ｄｅ               Ｍｏｎｔａｉｇｎｅ               ｗａｓ               Ｆｒｅｎｃｈ.

Ｎｅｖｅｒｔｈｅｌｅｓｓ,               Ｍｏｎｔａｉｇｎｅ               ｗａｓ               ｒａｉｓｅｄ               ｂｙ               ａ               ｖｉｌｌａｇｅ               ｍｏｔｈｅｒ               ａｎｄ               ｌｉｖｅｄ               ａｍｏｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｎａｎｔｓ               ｏｆ               ｈｉｓ               ｆａｔｈｅｒ'ｓ               ｅｓｔａｔｅ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｆｉｒｓｔ               ｔｈｒｅｅ               ｙｅａｒｓ               ｏｆ               ｈｉｓ               ｌｉｆｅ.

Ｈｅ               ｌｉｖｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｈｉｓ               ｆａｔｈｅｒ'ｓ               ｈｏｕｓｅ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｕｔｏｒ               ａｎｄ               ｓｅｒｖａｎｔｓ               ｗｈｏ               ｏｎｌｙ               ｓｐｅａｋ               Ｌａｔｉｎ.

Ｈｅ               ｅｎｔｅｒｅｄ               Ｃｏｌｌｅｇｅ               ｏｆ               Ｇｕｙｅｎｅ               ｔｏ               ｌｅａｒｎ               Ｌａｔｉｎ               ｉｎ               1539               ｕｎｄｅｒ               Ｇｅｏｒｇｅ               Ｂｕｃｈａｎａｎ.

Ｈｅ               ｆｉｎｉｓｈｅｄ               ｈｉｓ               ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ               ｉｎ               ｈｉｓ               13ｔｈ               ｙｅａｒ.

Ｔｗｏ               ｏｆ               Ｍｏｎｔａｉｇｎｅ'ｓ               ｅａｒｌｙ               ｅｓｓａｙ               ｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｚｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎａｌ               ｓｙｓｔｅｍ               ｏｆ               Ｃｏｌｌｅｇｅ               ｄｅ               Ｇｕｙｅｎｎｅ.

Ｗｈｅｎ               ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               24,               ｈｅ               ｍｅｔ               Ｅｓｔｉｅｎｎｅ               ｄｅ               ｌａ               Ｂｏｅｔｉｅ,               ｗｈｏ               ｈａｄ               ｂｅｅｎ               ｈｉｓ               ｃｌｏｓｅｓｔ               ｆｒｉｅｎｄ.

Ｉｎ               1565               ｈｅ               ｍａｒｒｉｅｄ               Ｆｒａｎｃｏｉｓｅ               ｄｅ               ｌａ               Ｃａｓｓａｉｇｎｅ.

Ｉｎ               1572,               Ｍｏｎｔａｇｎｅ               ｂｅｇａｎ               ｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ               Ｅｓｓａｙｓ,               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｗａｓ               ｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄ               ｉｎ               1580.


               Ｉｎ               Ｅｓｓａｙ,               Ｍｏｎｔａｉｇｎｅ               ｓｔｕｄｉｅｄ               ｈｉｍｓｅｌｆ,               ｂｙ               ｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｉｎｇ               ｈｉｓ               ｏｐｉｎｉｏｎｓ               ａｎｄ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ.

Ｈｅ               ｒｅｆｌｅｃｔ               ｏｎ               ｈｉｓ               ｒｅａｄｉｎｇｓ               ａｎｄ               ｗｒｉｔｅ               ｆｒｅｅｌｙ.

Ｈｅ               ｉｓ               ｋｎｏｗｎ               ｆｏｒ               ｆｉｄｅｉｓｍ               ａｎｄ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｓｋｅｐｔｉｃｉｓｍ.

Ｈｅ               ｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｚｅｄ               ｍａｎ'ｓ               ｓｕｐｅｒｉｏｒｉｔｙ               ａｎｄ               ｃｏｒｒｕｐｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｂｅｉｎｇ.

Ｈｅ               ｉｓ               ｓｋｅｐｔｉｃ               ａｂｏｕｔ               ｍｏｓｔ               ｐｅｏｐｌｅ               ｂｅｃａｕｓｅ               ｔｈｅｙ               ａｒｅ               ｍｅｒｅｌｙ               ｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｉｎｇ               ａｐｐｅａｒａｎｃｅｓ               ｔｏ               ｐｌｅａｓｅ               ｏｔｈｅｒｓ.

Ｈｅ               ｕｓｅｓ               ｓｋｅｐｔｉｃｉｓｍ               ａｓ               ａ               ｍｅｔｈｏｄ               ｔｏ               ｓｅａｒｃｈ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｒｕｔｈ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               ａｕｔｈｅｎｔｉｃ               ｓｅｌｆ.


               Ｍｏｎｔａｉｇｎｅ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               Ｄｅｓｃａｒｔｅｓ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｈｉｓ               ｓｅｌｆ-ｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｉｎｇ               ｍｅｔｈｏｄ.

Ｈｅ               ａｌｓｏ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               Ｐａｓｃａｌ'ｓ               ｄｏｕｂｔ               ａｂｏｕｔ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ.

Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ               ｗａｓ               ａｆｆｅｃｔｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｈｉｓ               ｓｅｌｆ-ｒｅｌｉａｎｃｅ.


               Ｐｌａｔｏ               
               Ｐｌａｔｏ               ｗａｓ               ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｅｄ               ａｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｏｓｔ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｔｉａｌ               Ｇｒｅｅｋ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｅｒ.

Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ａ               ｓｔｕｄｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               Ｓｏｃｒａｔｅｓ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅａｃｈｅｒ               ｏｆ               Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ.

Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｂｏｒｎ               ｉｎ               Ａｔｈｅｎｓ               ｏｎ               427               ＢＣ               ａｎｄ               ｈｅ               ｄｉｅｄ               ｉｎ               347               ＢＣ.

Ｓｏｃｒａｔｅｓ               ｄｉｅｄ               ｗｈｅｎ               Ｐｌａｔｏ               ｗａｓ               ｍｏｒｅ               ｏｒ               ｌｅｓｓ               30               ｙｅａｒｓ               ｏｌｄ.

Ｈｅ               ｔｒａｖｅｌｌｅｄ               ｔｏ               Ｅｇｙｐｔ               ａｎｄ               Ｓｉｃｉｌｙ               ａｆｔｅｒ               Ｓｏｃｒａｔｅｓ               ｄｅａｔｈ.

Ｈｅ               ｒｅｔｕｒｎｅｄ               ｔｏ               Ａｔｈｅｓ               ｏｎ               385               ＢＣ.

Ｈｉｓ               ｄｉａｌｏｇｕｅｓ               ｒｅｆｌｅｃｔ               ｈｉｓ               ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｌｉｆｅ               ａｎｄ               ｉｄｅａｓ               ｏｆ               ｈｉｓ               ｍｅｎｔｏｒ.

Ｐｌａｔｏ'ｓ               ｓｏｃｉａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｉｓ               ｒｅｆｌｅｃｔｅｄ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｈｉｓ               ｕｔｏｐｉａｎ               ｓｔａｔｅ               ｌａｉｄ               ｄｏｗｎ               ｉｎ               ｈｉｓ               ｍｏｓｔ               ｆａｍｏｕｓ               ｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ               "Ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｐｕｂｌｉｃ".

Ｉｔ               ｉｓ               ｂａｓｅｄ               ｏｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｄｅａｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｊｕｓｔｉｃｅ               ａｓ               ｄｏｉｎｇ               ｏｎｅ'ｓ               ｄｕｔｙ.

Ｉｎ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｅａｒｌｙ               ｓｔａｔｅ,               Ｐｌａｔｏ               ｐｒｏｐｏｓｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｄｅａ               ｏｆ               ｄｉｖｉｓｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｌａｂｏｒ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｒｕｌｅｒ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｂｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｅｒ               ｋｉｎｇ               ｗｈｏ               ｗａｓ               ａ               ｍｅｍｂｅｒ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｇｕａｒｄｉａｎｓ.

Ｐｌａｔｏ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               ａ               ｌｏｔ               ｏｆ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｅｒ               ｓｕｃｈ               ａｓ               Ｓａｉｎｔ               Ａｕｇｕｓｔｉｎｅ               ａｎｄ               Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ.

Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ               ｒｅｊｅｃｔｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｈｅｏｒｙ               ｏｆ               ｆｏｒｍｓ,               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｉｓ               ｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌ               ｔｏ               Ｐｌａｔｏ'ｓ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ.

Ｎｅｏ-Ｐｌａｔｏｎｉｓｔ,               ｓｕｃｈ               ａｓ               Ｐｌｏｔｉｎｕｓ               ｗｅｒｅ               ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｉｂｌｅ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｏｒｇａｎｉｚａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               Ｐｌａｔｏｎｉｃ               ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｓ.


               Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ               
               Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ               ｗａｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔｕｄｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               Ｐｌａｔｏ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｅｎｔｏｒ               ｏｆ               Ａｌｅｘａｎｄｅｒ               ｔｈｅ               Ｇｒｅａｔ.

Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｂｏｒｎ               ｏｎ               382               ＢＣ               ｉｎ               Ｓｔａｇｉｒａ,               Ｇｒｅｅｃｅ.

Ａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ａｇｅ               ｏｆ               18,               ｈｅ               ｅｎｒｏｌｌｅｄ               ｉｎ               Ｐｌａｔｏ'ｓ               Ａｃａｄｅｍｙ.

Ａｆｔｅｒ               Ｐｌａｔｏ'ｓ               ｄｅａｔｈ,               ｈｅ               ｗｅｎｔ               ｔｏ               Ａｓｓｏｓ               ａｎｄ               Ｌｅｓｂｏｓ.

Ｈｅ               ｂｅｃａｍｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｕｔｏｒ               ｏｆ               Ａｌｅｘａｎｄｅｒ               ｏｆ               Ｍａｃｅｄｏｎｉａ               ｉｎ               342.

Ｂｙ               355               ｈｅ               ｒｅｔｕｒｎｅｄ               ｔｏ               Ａｔｈｅｎｓ               ａｎｄ               ｆｏｕｎｄｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               Ｌｙｃｅｕｍ.

Ａｆｔｅｒ               12               ｙｅａｒｓ               Ａｌｅｘａｎｄｅｒ               ｄｉｅｄ,               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｃａｕｓｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｈｏｓｔｉｌｉｔｙ               ｏｆ               Ａｔｈｅｎｉａｎｓ               ｔｏｗａｒｄｓ               Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ.

Ｈｅ               ｆｌｅｄ               ｔｏ               Ｃｈａｌｃｉｓ               ａｎｄ               ｄｉｅｄ               ｉｎ               322               ＢＣ.

Ｈｉｓ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｅ,               Ｔｈｅｏｐｈｒａｓｔｕｓ               ｗａｓ               ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｉｂｌｅ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｒｏｐａｇａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｈｉｓ               ｉｄｅａｓ               ａｆｔｅｒ               ｈｉｓ               ｄｅａｔｈ.


               Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ               ｗａｓ               ｋｎｏｗｎ               ｆｏｒ               ｃｒｅａｔｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｙｓｔｅｍ               ｏｆ               ｌｏｇｉｃ               ｆｏｕｎｄ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｏｒｇａｎｏｎ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｌｏｇｉｃ               ｔｈａｔ               ｈｅ               ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｅｄ               ｉｓ               ｎｏｗ               ｋｎｏｗｎ               ａｓ               ｓｙｌｌｏｇｉｓｍ.

Ｈｅ               ｆｏｒｍｕｌａｔｅｄ               ｆｏｕｒ               ｃａｕｓｅｓ:               ｔｈｅ               ｍａｔｅｒｉａｌ               ｃａｕｓｅ,               ｆｏｒｍａｌ               ｃａｕｓｅ,               ｅｆｆｉｃｉｅｎｔ               ｃａｕｓｅ,               ａｎｄ               ｆｉｎａｌ               ｃａｕｓｅ.

Ｔｈｅｓｅ               ｃａｕｓｅｓ               ｗｅｒｅ               ｕｓｅｄ               ｂｙ               Ｔｈｏｍａｓ               Ａｑｕｉｎａｓ               ｔｏ               ｐｒｏｖｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｘｉｓｔｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               Ｇｏｄ.

Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ               ｐｅｒｃｅｉｖｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｏｌｉｓ               ａｓ               ｃｏｍｐｏｓｅｄ               ｏｆ               ｓｍａｌｌｅｒ               ａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｉｏｎｓ.

Ｔｈｅ               ａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｈｏｕｓｅｈｏｌｄ,               ｏｆ               ｓｌａｖｅｓ,               ａｎｄ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｋｉｎｇ.

Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ'ｓ               ｂａｓｉｃ               ｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌ               ｓｏｃｉａｌ               ｔｅｎｅｔｓ               ｌｉｅ               ｏｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｄｅａ               ｏｆ               ｔｅｍｐｅｒａｎｃｅ.

Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ               ｂｅｌｉｅｖｅｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｂｅｓｔ               ｆｏｒｍ               ｏｆ               ｇｏｖｅｒｎｍｅｎｔ               ｉｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｗｉｔｈ               ａ               ｌａｒｇｅ               ｍｉｄｄｌｅ               ｃｌａｓｓ.


               ＰＯＬＩＴＩＣＡＬ               ＰＨＩＬＯＳＯＰＨＥＲＳ               
               Ａｄａｍ               Ｓｍｉｔｈ               
               Ａｄａｍ               Ｓｍｉｔｈ               ｗａｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｏｎ               ｏｆ               ａ               ｃｕｓｔｏｍｓ               ｃｏｎｔｒｏｌｌｅｒ               ａｔ               Ｋｉｒｋｃａｌｄｙ,               Ｓｃｏｔｌａｎｄ.

Ａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ａｇｅ               ｏｆ               ｆｏｕｒｔｅｅｎ,               Ｓｍｉｔｈ               ｓｔｕｄｉｅｄ               ｍｏｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ               ｏｆ               Ｇｌａｓｇｌｏｗ               ｕｎｄｅｒ               Ｆｒａｎｃｉｓ               Ｈｕｔｃｈｓｏｎ.

Ｉｎ               1740,               ｈｅ               ｅｎｔｅｒｅｄ               Ｂａｌｌｉｏｌ               Ｃｏｌｌｅｇｅ,               Ｏｘｆｏｒｄ.

Ｂｙ               1748,               ｈｅ               ｓｔａｒｔｅｄ               ｄｅｌｉｖｅｒｉｎｇ               ｐｕｂｌｉｃ               ｌｅｃｔｕｒｅｓ.

Ｈｅ               ｂｅｃａｍｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｈａｉｒ               ｏｆ               ｌｏｇｉｃ               ａｔ               ｔｈｅ               Ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ               ｏｆ               Ｇｌａｓｇｌｏｗ               ｉｎ               1751               ａｎｄ               Ｃｈａｉｒ               ｏｆ               Ｍｏｒａｌ               Ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｉｎ               1752.

Ｈｅ               ｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄ               Ｔｈｅｏｒｙ               ｏｆ               Ｓｅｎｔｉｍｅｎｔｓ               ｉｎ               17759.


               Ｔｈｏｍａｓ               Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               
               Ｔｈｏｍａｓ               Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｗａｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｆｉｒｓｔ               ｓｏｃｉａｌ               ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ               ｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｄｅｆｅｎｄｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｉｖｉｎｅ               ｒｉｇｈｔ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｋｉｎｇ               ｗｉｔｈｏｕｔ               ａｐｐｅａｌ               ｔｏ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｕｓ               ｐｒｉｎｃｉｐｌｅｓ.

Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｏｎ               ｏｆ               ａ               ｃｌｅｒｇｙｍａｎ.

Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｇｒｅｗ               ｕｐ               ｉｎ               ａ               ｐｏｏｒ               ｆａｍｉｌｙ               ａｔ               Ｗｅｓｔｐｏｒｔ,               Ｗｉｌｔｓｈｉｒｅ.

Ｔｈｏｍａｓ               Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ａｔｔｅｎｄｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               Ｍａｇｄａｌｅｎ               Ｈａｌｌ               ｉｎ               Ｏｘｆｏｒｄ.

Ｈｅ               ｃｏｍｐｌｅｔｅｄ               ｈｉｓ               Ｂａｃｈｅｌｏｒ'ｓ               ｄｅｇｒｅｅ               ｉｎ               1608               ａｎｄ               ｗａｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｕｔｏｒ               ｏｆ               Ｗｉｌｌｉａｍ               Ｃａｖｅｎｄｉｓｈ'               ｓｏｎ.

Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ａｎｄ               ｙｏｕｎｇ               Ｃａｖｅｎｄｉｓｈ               ｔｏｕｒｅｄ               Ｆｒａｎｅ               ａｎｄ               Ｉｔａｌｙ               ｉｎ               1614.

Ｉｎ               1626               ｙｏｕｎｇ               Ｃａｖｅｎｄｉｓｈ               ｄｉｅｄ.

Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｂｅｃａｍｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｕｔｏｒ               ｏｆ               Ｓｉｒ               Ｇｅｒｖａｓｅ               Ｃｌｉｆｔｏｎ'ｓ               ｓｏｎ.

Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｂｅｃａｍｅ               ａｃｑｕａｉｎｔｅｄ               ｗｉｔｈ               Ｅｕｃｌｉｄ'ｓ               Ｅｌｅｍｅｎｔｓ               ａｎｄ               ｗａｓ               ｅｎｔｉｃｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｅｄｕｃｔｉｖｅ               ｌｏｇｉｃ.

Ｉｎ               1637,               Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｒｅｔｉｒｅｄ               ａｓ               ａ               ｔｕｔｏｒ               ａｎｄ               ｄｅｃｉｄｅｄ               ｔｏ               ｐｕｒｓｕｅ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ.

1637               ｉｓ               ｗｔｈｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｔｈｉｒｔｙ               Ｙｅａｒｓ'               Ｗａｒｓ               ｉｎ               Ｅｕｒｏｐｅ,               ｉｍｐｌｙｉｎｇ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｏｃｉａｌ               ａｎｄ               ｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌ               ｍｉｌｉｅｕ               ｓｕｒｒｏｕｎｄｉｎｇ               Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｉｓ               ｕｎｓｔａｂｌｅ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｍｅｔｈｏｄ               ｏｆ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｉｚｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｏｒｉｇｉｎ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔａｔｅ               ｃｏｕｌｄ               ｂｅ               ｅｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌ               ｉｎ               ｄｅｔｅｒｍｉｎｉｎｇ               ｗｈｅｔｈｅｒ               ｐｏｗｅｒ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｒｅｓｉｄｅ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｇｏｖｅｒｎｍｅｎｔ               ｏｒ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｅｏｐｌｅ.


               Ｉｎ               1651,               Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               Ｌｅｖｉａｔｈａｎ.

Ｉｔ               ａｒｇｕｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｇｏｖｅｒｎｍｅｎｔ               ｉｓ               ｆｏｒｍｅｄ               ａｓ               ａ               ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｅｍｂｅｒｓ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ               ｔｏ               ｐｒｏｔｅｃｔ               ｅａｃｈ               ｏｔｈｅｒ               ａｇａｉｎｓｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔａｔｅ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ.

Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｆｕｒｔｈｅｒ               ｓｔａｔｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｍａｎ               ｉｓ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌｌｙ               ｓｅｌｆｉｓｈ.

Ｗｉｔｈｏｕｔ               ａ               ｇｏｖｅｒｎｍｅｎｔ               ａｎｄ               ａ               ｓｏｖｅｒｅｉｇｎ,               ｔｈｅ               ｐｅｏｐｌｅ               ｗｉｌｌ               ｌｉｖｅ               ｉｎ               ｃｏｎｓｔａｎｔ               ｆｅａｒ               ａｎｄ               ｃｈａｏｓ.

Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｓｕｐｐｏｓｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               Ｌｅｖｉａｔｈａｎ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｂｅ               ａｎ               ａｂｓｏｌｕｔｅ               ｓｏｖｅｒｅｉｇｎ               ｔｈａｔ               ｃａｎｎｏｔ               ｂｅ               ｏｖｅｒｔｈｒｏｗｎ.

Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｏｃｉａｌ               ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ               ｔｈｅｏｒｉｓｔ'ｓ:               Ｒｏｕｓｓｅａｕ               ａｎｄ               Ｌｏｃｋｅ.

Ｈｅ               ａｌｓｏ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               Ｍｏｎｔｅｓｑｕｉｅｅ.

Ａｍｅｒｉｃａｎ               ｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌ               ｔｈｉｎｋｅｒｓ               ａｌｓｏ               ｕｓｅｄ               Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ               ｔｈｅｏｒｙ               ｔｏ               ｐｒｏｍｏｔｅ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｉｄｅａｓ.

Ｊｅｒｅｍｙ               Ｂｅｎｔｈａｍ               ａｎｄ               ＪＳ               Ｍｉｌｌ               ａｒｇｕｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｃｏｎｓｅｑｕｅｎｃｅｓ               ｄｅｔｅｒｍｉｎｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｏｒａｌｉｔｙ               ｏｆ               ａｎ               ａｃｔ,               ｒｅｆｌｅｃｔｓ               Ｈｏｂｂｅｓｉａｎ               ｉｄｅａ               ｏｆ               ｈｕｍａｎ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ.


               Ｊｏｈｎ               Ｌｏｃｋｅ               
               Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｂｏｒｎ               ｉｎ               Ｓｏｍｅｒｓｅｔ,               Ｅｎｇｌａｎｄ               ｉｎ               1632.

Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｌｄｅｓｔ               ｓｏｎ               ｏｆ               Ｊｏｈｎ               Ｌｏｃｋｅ               Ｓｒ.

Ｌｏｃｋｅ               ａｔｔｅｎｄｅｄ               Ｗｅｓｔｍｉｎｉｓｔｅｒ               ｓｃｈｏｏｌ               ｉｎ               Ｌｏｎｄｏｎ               ｔｏ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｍｅｄｉｃｉｎｅ,               ｔｈｅｎ               Ｃｈｒｉｓｔ               Ｃｈｕｒｃｈ               ｉｎ               1651               ｔｏ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ.

Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ａ               ｐｈｙｓｉｃｉａｎ               ｉｎ               1667.

Ｉｎ               1683,               Ｌｏｃｋｅ               ｗｅｎｔ               ｔｏ               Ｈｏｌｌａｎｄ.

Ｈｅ               ｒｅｔｕｒｎｅｄ/               ｔｏ               Ｅｎｇｌａｎｄ               ｉｎ               1689.


               Ｌｏｃｋｅ               ｗａｓ               ｗｅｌｌ-ｋｎｏｗｎ               ｆｏｒ               ｈｉｓ               ｌｉｂｅｒａｌｉｓｍ.

Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ａｌｓｏ               ａｇａｉｎｓｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｄｅａ               ｔｈａｔ               ｋｉｎｇｓ               ｈａｖｅ               ｄｉｖｉｎｅ               ｒｉｇｈｔ               ｂｅｃａｕｓｅ               ｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌ               ｒｉｇｈｔｓ               ａｒｅ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｒｉｇｈｔｓ.

Ｈｅ               ｉｓ               ｆａｍｏｕｓ               ｆｏｒ               "ｌｉｆｅ,               ｌｉｂｅｒｔｙ,               ａｎｄ               ｐｒｏｐｅｒｔｙ"               (Ｖｎ               Ｄｅｈｓｅｎ,               115).

Ｓｉｍｉｌａｒ               ｔｏ               Ｈｏｂｂｅｓ,               Ｌｏｃｋｅ               ａｒｇｕｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｇｏｖｅｒｎｍｅｎｔ               ｉｓ               ｃｒｅａｔｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｅｏｐｌｅ               ｔｏ               ｐｒｅｓｅｒｖｅ               ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ.


               Ｌｏｃｋｅ               ｓｔａｔｅｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｌｉｂｅｒｔｙ               ｄｅｎｏｔｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｒｅｓｅｒｖａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌ               ｒｉｇｈｔｓ.

Ｌｏｃｋｅ               ｂｅｌｉｅｖｅｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅ               ｃｏｍｅｓ               ｆｒｏｍ               ｓｅｎｓａｔｉｏｎ               ａｎｄ               ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｉｏｎ.

Ｈｅ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               Ｈｕｍｅ               ａｎｄ               Ｂｅｒｋｅｌｅｙ.

Ｕｎｔｉｌ               ｔｏｄａｙ,               Ｈｕｍｅ'ｓ               ｌｉｂｅｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｉｓ               ｓｔｉｌｌ               ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔ               ｆｏｒ               ｄｅｍｏｃｒａｔｉｃ               ｓｏｃｉｅｔｉｅｓ.

Ｔｈｏｍａｓ               Ｊｅｆｆｅｒｓｏｎ               ｕｓｅｄ               Ｌｏｃｋｅａｎ               ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｓ               ｔｏ               ｊｕｓｔｉｆｙ               ｒｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ.
               Ｊｏｈｎ               Ｓｔｕａｒｔ               Ｍｉｌｌ               
               Ｉｎ               Ｍａｙ               20,               1806               Ｊｏｈｎ               Ｓｔｕａｒｔ               Ｍｉｌｌ               ｗａｓ               ｂｏｒｎ               ｉｎ               Ｐｅｎｔｏｎｖｉｌｌｅ,               Ｌｏｎｄｏｎ.

Ｈｉｓ               ｆａｔｈｅｒ               ｗａｓ               Ｊａｍｅｓ               Ｍｉｌｌ,               ａ               ｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｅｒ               ｏｆ               Ｂｅｎｔｈａｍ'ｓ               ｕｔｉｌｉｔａｒｉａｎ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ.

Ｈｉｓ               ｍｏｔｈｅｒ               ｗａｓ               Ｈａｒｒｉｅｔ               Ｂａｒｒｏｗ.

ＪＳ               Ｍｉｌｌ               ｗａｓ               ｅｄｕｃａｔｅｄ               ｉｎ               Ｇｒｅｅｋ               ａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ａｇｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｒｅｅ.

Ｗｈｅｎ               ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｅｉｇｈｔ,               ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｔａｕｇｈｔ               Ｌａｔｉｎ.

Ｂｙ               ｔｈｅ               ａｇｅ               ｏｆ               ｆｏｕｒｔｅｅｎ,               ｈｅ               ａｌｒｅａｄｙ               ｒｅａｄ               ｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌ               ｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅ,               ｓｔｕｄｉｅｄ               Ｎｅｗｔｏｎ,               ｌｏｇｉｃ,               ｍａｔｈ,               ｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃ               ｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓ               ａｎｄ               ｌｅｇａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ.

Ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｈｉｓ               ｔｅｅｎａｇｅ               ｙｅａｒｓ,               ｈｅ               ｓｔｕｄｉｅｄ               ｍｅｔａｐｈｙｓｉｃｓ.

Ａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ａｇｅ               ｏｆ               17,               ｈｅ               ａｌｒｅａｄｙ               ｈａｓ               ａ               ｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｅａｓｔ               Ｉｎｄｉａ               Ｃｏｍｐａｎｙ.

Ｉｎ               1826               ｈｅ               ｓｕｆｆｅｒｅｄ               ｄｅｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎ               ａｎｄ               ｗａｓ               ｃｕｒｅｄ               ｂｙ               Ｗｏｒｄｓｗｏｒｔｈ'ｓ               ｐｏｅｔｒｙ.

Ｉｎ               1828,               Ｍｉｌｌ               ｗａｓ               ｇｉｖｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｈａｎｃｅ               ｔｏ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               Ａｕｇｕｓｔｅ               Ｃｏｍｔｅ               ａｎｄ               Ｃｏｌｅｒｉｄｇｅ.

Ｍｉｌｌ               ｗａｓ               ａｃｑｕａｉｎｔｅｄ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｏｌｅ               ｏｆ               ｉｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎｓ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ.

Ｍｉｌｌ               ｍｅｔ               Ｈａｒｒｉｅｔ               Ｔａｙｌｏｒ               ｉｎ               1830               ａｎｄ               ｍａｒｒｉｅｄ               ｈｅｒ               ｉｎ               1851.


               ＪＳ               Ｍｉｌｌ               ａｒｇｕｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｇｏｖｅｒｎｍｅｎｔ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｈａｖｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｇｒｅａｔｅｓｔ               ｕｔｉｌｉｔｙ.

Ｇｏｖｅｒｎｍｅｎｔｓ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｈｅｌｐ               ｅａｃｈ               ｃｉｔｉｚｅｎ               ｔｏ               ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｐｏｔｅｎｔｉａｌｓ               ａｎｄ               ａｃｈｉｅｖｅ               ｈａｐｐｉｎｅｓｓ.

Ｐｏｗｅｒ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｏｎｌｙ               ｂｅ               ｅｘｅｒｃｉｓｅｄ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｕｒｐｏｓｅ               ｏｆ               ｐｒｅｖｅｎｔｉｎｇ               ａｎｏｔｈｅｒ               ｐｅｒｓｏｎ               ｆｒｏｍ               ｂｅｉｎｇ               ｈａｒｍｅｄ.

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｍａｘｉｍ               ｉｓ               ｇｅｎｅｒａｌｌｙ               ｋｎｏｗｎ               ａｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｈａｒｍ               ｐｒｉｎｃｉｐｌｅ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｒｉｇｉｄ               ｕｐｂｒｉｎｇｉｎｇ               ｂｙ               ｈｉｓ               ｆａｔｈｅｒ               ｒｅｓｕｌｔｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｈｉｓ               ａｄｈｅｒｅｎｃｅ               ｔｏ               ｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌｉｔｙ.

Ｈｅ               ａｒｇｕｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ａ               ｐｅｒｓｏｎ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｂｅ               ｌｅｆｔ               ｔｏ               ｄｅｃｉｄｅ               ｏｎ               ｈｉｓ               ｏｗｎ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｂｅ               ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｉｂｌｅ               ｆｏｒ               ｈｉｓ               ｄｅｃｉｓｉｏｎｓ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｐｅｒｓｏｎ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｌｅａｒｎ               ｔｏ               ｃｒｅａｔｅ               ｈｉｓ               ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌ               ｂｅｌｉｅｆｓ               ａｎｄ               ｎｏｔ               ｍｅｒｅｌｙ               ｔｏ               ｆｏｌｌｏｗ               ｗｈａｔ               ｉｓ               ｃｕｓｔｏｍａｒｙ               ｏｒ               ｗｈａｔ               ｏｔｈｅｒ               ｐｅｏｐｌｅ               ａｓｓｅｒｔ               ａｓ               ｒｉｇｈｔ.

Ｈｅ               ｓｕｇｇｅｓｔｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｏｎｅ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｂｅ               ｆｒｅｅ               ｔｏ               ｄｏ               ｗｈａｔ               ｈｅ               ｗａｎｔｓ               ａｓ               ｌｏｎｇ               ａｓ               ｈｉｓ               ａｃｔｉｏｎ               ｈａｓ               ｎｏ               ｄｅｔｒｉｍｅｎｔａｌ               ｅｆｆｅｃｔ               ｔｏ               ｏｔｈｅｒｓ.

Ｈｉｓ               ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔ               ｏｆ               ｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌｉｔｙ               ｉｓ               ｌａｒｇｅｌｙ               ａｆｆｅｃｔｅｄ               ｂｙ               Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ'ｓ               ｉｄｅａｓ.

Ｈｉｓ               ｕｔｉｌｉｔａｒｉａｎ               ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｓ               ａｒｅ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               ｂｙ               Ｊａｍｅｓ               Ｍｉｌｌ               ａｎｄ               Ｊｅｒｅｍｙ               Ｂｅｎｔｈａｍ.


               Ｊｅａｎ               Ｊａｃｑｕｅｓ               Ｒｏｕｓｓｅａｕ               
               Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ａ               ｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｅｒ               ｂｏｒｎ               ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｅｎｌｉｇｈｔｅｎｍｅｎｔ               ｐｅｒｉｏｄ.

Ｈｅ               ｉｓ               ａｎｏｔｈｅｒ               ｓｏｃｉａｌ               ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ               ｔｈｅｏｒｉｓｔ.

Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｂｏｒｎ               ｏｎ               Ｊｕｎｅ               28,               1712               ａｔ               Ｇｅｎｅｖａ,               Ｓｗｉｔｚｅｒｌａｎｄ.

Ｈｉｓ               ｆａｔｈｅｒ               ｗａｓ               ａ               ｗａｔｃｈｍａｋｅｒ.

Ａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ａｇｅ               ｏｆ               16,               ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｔａｋｅｎ               ｂｙ               Ｂａｒｏｎｅ               Ｌｏｕｉｓｅ               ｄｅ               Ｗａｒｒｅｎｓ.

Ｓｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｈｅｒ               ｍｅｎｔｏｒ,               ａｓ               ｗｅｌｌ               ａｓ               ｌｏｖｅｒ.

Ｈｅ               ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｅｄ               ｃｌｏｓｅ               ｆｒｉｅｎｄｓｈｉｐ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｄｅｎｉｓ               Ｄｉｄｅｒｏｔ               ｗｈｅｎ               ｈｅ               ｗｅｎｔ               ｔｏ               Ｐａｒｉｓ               ｉｎ               1743.

Ｈｅ               ｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄ               Ａ               Ｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ               ｏｎ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               Ａｒｔｓ               ｉｎ               1750.

Ｉｎ               1756               ｈｅ               ｓｅｔｔｌｅｄ               ｉｎ               Ｍｏｎｔｍｏｒｅｎｃｙ.

Ｂｙ               1762               ｈｅ               ｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄ               Ｅｍｉｌｅ,               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄ               ａ               ｔｈｅｏｒｙ               ｏｆ               ｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎ               ｔｈａｔ               ｆｏｃｕｓｅｄ               ｏｎ               ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｈｉｌｄ'ｓ               ｆｅｅｌｉｎｇｓ               ｂｅｆｏｒｅ               ｅｎｇａｇｉｎｇ               ｉｎ               ｉｎｔｅｌｌｅｃｔｕａｌ               ｐｕｒｓｕｉｔ.

Ａｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇ               ｔｏ               Ｒｏｕｓｓｅａｕ,               ｗｈｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｉｔｉｚｅｎｓ               ｇａｖｅ               ｕｐ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｒｉｇｈｔｓ,               ｔｈｅ               Ｇｅｎｅｒａｌ               Ｗｉｌｌ               ｅｍｅｒｇｅｓ.

Ｈｅ               ｗａｓ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               ｂｙ               Ｌｏｃｋｅ,               ｈｏｂｂｅｓ,               Ｔｈｏｒｅａｕ,               ａｎｄ               Ｅｍｅｒｓｏｎ.


               Ｋａｒｌ               Ｍａｒｘ               
               Ｋａｒｌ               Ｍａｒｘ               ｗａｓ               ｂｏｒｎ               ｉｎ               Ｔｒｉｅｒ,               Ｇｅｒｍａｎ               Ｒｈｉｎｅｌａｎｄ               ｉｎ               1818.

Ｈｅ               ｓｔｕｄｉｅｄ               ｌａｗ               ｉｎ               Ｂｏｎｎ               ａｎｄ               Ｂｅｒｌｉｎ.

Ｈｉｓ               ｔｈｅｓｉｓ               ｗａｓ               ａ               ｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｏｆ               Ｄｅｍｏｃｒｉｔｕｓ               ａｎｄ               Ｅｐｉｃｕｒｕｓ.

Ｉｎ               1843,               ｈｅ               ｗｒｏｔｅ               "Ｏｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｊｅｗｉｓｈ               Ｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎ".

Ｉｎ               1845,               ｈｅ               ｃｏ-ａｕｔｈｏｒｅｄ               Ｔｈｅ               Ｇｅｒｍａｎ               Ｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ｗｉｔｈ               Ｅｎｇｅｌｓ.


               Ｈｉｓ               ｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｉｓ               ｋｎｏｗｎ               ａｓ               Ｍａｒｘｉｓｍ.

Ｉｔ               ｉｓ               ａ               ｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍ               ｏｆ               ｃａｐｉｔａｌｉｓｍ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｖｉｅｗ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｕｐｐｅｒ               ｃｌａｓｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｃｏｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｉｎｏｒｉｔｙ               ｅｘｐｌｏｉｔｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｍａｊｏｒｉｔｙ.

Ｈｅ               ａｒｇｕｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ               ｏｆ               ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎ               ｍｕｓｔ               ｂｅ               ｓｏｃｉａｌｉｚｅｄ               ｔｏ               ｈｅｌｐ               ｐｅｏｐｌｅ               ｕｓｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｒｉｖａｔｅ               ｐｒｏｐｅｒｔｉｅｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｌａｙ               ｂａｒｒｅｎ               ａｎｄ               ｗａｓｔｅｄ.

Ｍｏｒｅｏｖｅｒ,               Ｋａｒｌ               Ｍａｒｘ               ｂｅｌｉｅｖｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ               ｉｓ               ａ               ｓｔｒｕｇｇｌｅ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｌａｓｓｅｓ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ.

Ｔｏ               ｔｈｉｓ,               Ｍａｒｘ               ｉｓ               ｅｎｃｏｕｒａｇｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｒｏｌｅｔａｒｉａｎｓ               ｔｏ               ｒｅｖｏｌｔ               ａｇａｉｎｓｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｕｐｐｅｒ               ｃｌａｓｓ               ｔｏ               ｆａｃｉｌｉｔａｔｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｑｕａｌ               ｄｉｓｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｒｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｓ.

Ｍａｒｘ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               ｓｅｖｅｒａｌ               ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｓｔ               ａｎｄ               ｓｏｃｉａｌｉｓｔ               ｌｅａｄｅｒｓ               ｗｈｏ               ｒｅｊｅｃｔ               ｃａｐｉｔａｌｉｓｍ.






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