2013년 11월 28일 목요일

오전 1:02

By Effie Heavener

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About 'thomas aquinas university'|...his right to teach in Catholic universities on order of the Office for the...and theologians like Thomas Aquinas, Meister Eckhart and Hildegard of...







About 'thomas aquinas university'|...his right to teach in Catholic universities on order of the Office for the...and theologians like Thomas Aquinas, Meister Eckhart and Hildegard of...








Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ｓｈａｒｅ               ａ               ｔｕｍｕｌｔｕｏｕｓ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ.

Ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｅｃｕｌａｒ               ｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ               ｏｆ               ｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ               Ｗｅｓｔｅｒｎ               ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ,               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ｐｌａｙ               ｒｏｌｅｓ               ｏｆ               ａｌｍｏｓｔ               ｃｏｍｐｌｅｔｅ               ｏｐｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ:               ｔｈｅ               ｆｉｒｓｔ               ｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｉｎｇ               ｏｆ               ｅｍｐｉｒｉｃａｌ               ｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅ               ｇａｔｈｅｒｅｄ               ｔｏ               ｐｒｏｖｅ               ｏｒ               ｄｉｓｐｒｏｖｅ;               ｔｈｅ               ｌａｔｔｅｒ               ｄｅｆｉｎｅｄ               ｂｙ               ａ               ｃｏｌｌｅｃｔｉｖｅ               ｓｅｔ               ｏｆ               ｂｅｌｉｅｆｓ               ａｎｄ               ｒｉｔｕａｌ               ｃｏｍｍｉｔｍｅｎｔｓ               ｃｅｎｔｅｒｅｄ               ｏｎ               ａ               ｃｏｍｍｏｎ               ｆａｉｔｈ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｗｏ               ｂｏｄｉｅｓ               ｓｈａｒｅ               ｇｒｅａｔｅｒ               ｓｉｍｉｌａｒｉｔｉｅｓ               ｔｈａｎ               ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｓ,               ｃｏｍｍｏｎａｌｉｔｉｅｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ｈａｖｅ               ｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｔ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅ               ｏｖｅｒ               ｔｈｅ               Ｍｉｄｄｌｅ               ａｎｄ               ｌａｔｅ               Ｍｉｄｄｌｅ               Ａｇｅｓ.

Ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ,               ｔｈｅ               ｄｕａｌ               ｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓ               ｏｆ               'Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ'               ａｎｄ               'Ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ'               ｃｏｅｘｉｓｔｅｄ               ａｓ               ａ               ｈｏｍｏｇｅｎｏｕｓ               ｅｎｔｉｔｙ               (ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈ               ｉｎ               ｍｕｃｈ               ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔ               ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎａｒｙ               ｆｏｒｍｓ),               ｉｎｓｔｉｇａｔｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｕｓ               ｍｏｔｉｖｅｓ,               ｕｓｅｄ               ｔｏ               ｐｕｒｓｕｅ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌ               ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｏｎ.

Ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｈｅｒａｌｄｅｄ               ａ               ｒｅｂｉｒｔｈ               ｏｆ               ｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔ               ｉｎ               ｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌ               ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ,               ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ,               ａｎｄ               ｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ.

Ｎｅｗ               ａｐｐｒｅｃｉａｔｉｏｎｓ               ｆｏｒ               Ｇｒｅｅｋ               ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ               ａｎｄ               ｃｌａｓｓｉｃｓ               ｏｃｃｕｐｉｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｆａｃｕｌｔｙ               ｏｆ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｉｅｓ.

Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｅｌｉａｎｉｓｍ,               ａｌｏｎｇ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｗｏｒｋｓ               ｏｆ               Ｐｌａｔｏ,               Ｓｏｃｒａｔｅｓ,               Ｔｈａｌｅｓ               ｆｏｕｎｄ               ｐｒｏｍｉｎｅｎｃｅ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｉｅｓ               ｉｎ               Ｐａｒｉｓ,               Ｓａｌｅｒｎｏ,               Ｂｏｌｏｇｎａ,               Ｐａｄｕａ,               Ｆｌｏｒｅｎｃｅ,               ａｎｄ               ｏｔｈｅｒ               ｃｉｔｉｅｓ;               ｉｎｓｐｉｒｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ               ｏｆ               Ｓｔ.

Ｔｈｏｍａｓ               Ａｑｕｉｎａｓ,               Ｐｈｉｌｉｐ               Ｍｅｌａｎｃｈｔｈｏｎ,               ａｍｏｎｇ               ｏｔｈｅｒｓ;               ａｎｄ               ｅｘｃｉｔｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ,               ｍｅｄｉｃｉｎｅ,               ａｎｄ               ｌｏｇｉｃ.

Ｉｎｔｅｌｌｅｃｔｕａｌｓ               ａｔｔｅｍｐｔｅｄ               ｔｏ               ｅｘｐｌａｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｌｉｇｈｔ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               Ｍｉｄｄｌｅ               Ａｇｅｓ               (ｉｅ.

ｔｈｅ               Ｂｌａｃｋ               Ｄｅａｔｈ,               ｔｈｅ               Ｌｉｔｔｌｅ               Ｉｃｅ               Ａｇｅ,               ｔｈｅ               Ｈｕｎｄｒｅｄ               Ｙｅａｒｓ               Ｗａｒ,               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｌｌａｐｓｅ               ｏｆ               Ｃｏｎｓｔａｎｔｉｎｏｐｌｅ,               ｅｔｃ.)               ｔｈｒｏｕｇｈ               ｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌ               ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ.

Ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ,               ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ,               ｅｎｇｅｎｄｅｒｅｄ               ｌｉｔｔｌｅ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｗａｙ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               ｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓ-ａｔ               ｌｅａｓｔ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｗａｙ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               ｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅ.

Ｔｈｏｕｇｈ               ｓｏｍｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ               ｐａｖｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｗａｙ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               Ｒｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ,               ｔｈｅ               ｉｎｔｅｌｌｅｃｔｕａｌ               ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ,               ｕｎｄｅｒｌｉｎｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ,               ｇｒｅａｔｌｙ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｄ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｏｎ               ａｎｄ               ｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｄ               ａｎ               ａｔｍｏｓｐｈｅｒｅ               ｓｔｉｍｕｌａｔｉｎｇ               ｔｏ               ｓｃｈｏｌａｒｌｙ               ｇｒｏｗｔｈ               ｙｅｔ               ｓｔｕｎｔｉｎｇ               ｔｏ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               ａｄｖａｎｃｅ.

[ｉ]
               Ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ａｓ               ｔｗｏ               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔ,               ｏｆｔｅｎ               ａｄｖｅｒｓａｒｉａｌ               ｍｅｃｈａｎｉｓｍｓ               ｉｓ               ａ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙ               ｙｏｕｎｇ               ｐｈｅｎｏｍｅｎｏｎ.

Ｓｉｍｉｌａｒｌｙ,               ｔｈｅ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｆｏｒｍｓ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｗｏ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅｓ               ｌｉｔｔｌｅ               ｒｅｓｅｍｂｌｅ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｇｅｎｅａｌｏｇｉｃａｌ               ａｎｃｅｓｔｏｒｓ.

Ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｏｇｒａｐｈｙ               ｐｌａｙｓ               ａ               ｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｔ               ｒｏｌｅ               ｉｎ               ｆｒａｍｉｎｇ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｄｅｂａｔｅ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎｓ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍｓ               "Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,"               "Ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,"               ａｎｄ               "Ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               Ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ,"               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ               ｏｖｅｒ               ｔｉｍｅ,               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ               ｉｎ               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｅａｃｈ               ｒｅｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ               ｔｅｒｍ               ｅｘｉｓｔｓ,               ａｒｅ               ｖｉｔａｌ               ｔｏ               ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｖａｒｉａｂｌｅ               ａｎｄ               ｃｏｎｔｒａｓｔｉｎｇ               ｇｅｎｅａｌｏｇｉｅｓ.
               Ｔｈｅ               ｄｙｎａｍｉｃ               ｅｔｙｍｏｌｏｇｙ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍ               "ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ"               ｃｒｅａｔｅｓ               ｄｉｆｆｉｃｕｌｔｙ               ｉｎ               ｅｓｔａｂｌｉｓｈｉｎｇ               ａ               ｕｎｉｆｏｒｍ               ｓｔａｎｄａｒｄ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｓｔａｎｔ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ               ｏｆ               ｃｈａｎｇｅ               ｃｏｍｐｌｉｃａｔｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｏｆ               ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔ               ｐｅｒｉｏｄｓ               ｉｎ               ｔｉｍｅ,               ｐｅｒｐｅｔｕａｔｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               "ａｎａｃｈｒｏｎｉｓｔｉｃ               ａｓｓｕｍｐｔｉｏｎ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ               ｉｎ               ｅａｒｌｉｅｒ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｃａｌ               ｐｅｒｉｏｄｓ               ｗａｓ               ｐｒｏｓｅｃｕｔｅｄ               ｍｏｒｅ               ｏｒ               ｌｅｓｓ               ａｌｏｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｓａｍｅ               ｌｉｎｅｓ               ａｓ               ｔｈｏｓｅ               ａｄｏｐｔｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｓｔｓ."[ｉｉ]               Ｔｈｉｓ               ｐｏｔｅｎｔｉａｌ               ｓｏｕｒｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｃｏｎｆｕｓｉｏｎ               ｉｌｌｕｓｔｒａｔｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｉｆｆｉｃｕｌｔｙ               ｉｎ               ａｓｓｉｇｎｉｎｇ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎ               ｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ.

Ａｎ               ａｍｂｉｇｕｉｔｙ               ｅｘｉｓｔｓ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｕｓｅｄ               ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｉｄｄｌｅ               ａｇｅｓ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｏｒｉｇｉｎｓ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｓｔｅｍ               ｆｒｏｍ               ｔｈｅ               Ｌａｔｉｎ,               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉａ.

Ｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ               ｕｓｅｄ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉａ               ｔｏ               ｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｈｉｇｈｅｓｔ               ｆｏｒｍ               ｏｆ               ｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅ.

Ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｔｉｍｅｓ,               ｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ               ａｌｓｏ               ｕｓｅｄ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉａ               ｔｏ               ｄｅｓｃｒｉｂｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ａｎｄ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ,               ｄｅｅｍｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅｍ               'ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ.'               Ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍ,               ｗｈｅｎ               ｕｓｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ,               ｏｂｖｉｏｕｓｌｙ               ｃａｎｎｏｔ               ｂｅ               ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔｏｏｄ               ｔｏ               ｒｅｌａｔｅ               ｔｏ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎｓ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ.

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓａｌ               ａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉａ               ｏｎｌｙ               ｈｅｌｐｓ               ｔｏ               ｏｂｆｕｓｃａｔｅ               ｉｔｓ               ｍｅａｎｉｎｇ.

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｉｌｌｕｓｔｒａｔｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｆｕｓｉｏｎ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｄｅｂａｔｅ               ｃｏｎｊｕｒｅｓ.[ｉｉｉ]
               Ｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎａｌ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｅ               ｔｈｅ               Ｇｒｅｅｋｓ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｉｔｓ               ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｉｏｎ,               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               Ｒｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ               (ｔｈｅ               ｌａｔｅｒ               ｓｔａｇｅｓ),               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈ               ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ,               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｏｒｉｇｉｎｓ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               "ｍｏｄｅｒｎ"               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉａｎ               Ｇ.

Ｅ.

Ｒ.

Ｌｌｏｙｄ               ｃｏｎｔｅｓｔｓ,               ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ,               ｔｈａｔ,               "ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｉｓ               ａ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｃａｔｅｇｏｒｙ,               ｎｏｔ               ａｎ               ａｎｃｉｅｎｔ               ｏｎｅ:               ｔｈｅｒｅ               ｉｓ               ｎｏ               ｏｎｅ               ｔｅｒｍ               ｔｈａｔ               ｉｓ               ｅｘａｃｔｌｙ               ｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｔ               ｔｏ               ｏｕｒ               'ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ'               ｉｎ               Ｇｒｅｅｋ."[ｉｖ]               Ｉｄｅｎｔｉｆｙｉｎｇ               ａ               ｕｂｉｑｕｉｔｏｕｓ,               ｕｎｉｆｏｒｍ               ｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｓｕｇｇｅｓｔｓ               ａｎ               ａｎａｃｈｒｏｎｉｓｍ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍ               ｉｍｐｌｉｅｓ               ｉｔｓ               ｔｏｒｔｕｏｕｓ               ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ.[ｖ]
               Ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈ               ｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ               ｏｆｔｅｎ               ｏｖｅｒｌｏｏｋ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｎｔｅｒｉｍ               (ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｇｒｅｅｋ               Ｈｅｌｌｅｎｉｓｔｉｃ               ｐｅｒｉｏｄ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               Ｒｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ),               ｏｒ               ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               Ｍｉｄｄｌｅ               ａｎｄ               Ｌａｔｅ               Ｍｉｄｄｌｅ               Ａｇｅｓ               (ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｏｃｃｕｒｒｅｄ)               ｉｎｅｒｔ,               ｔｈｉｓ               ｐｅｒｉｏｄ               ｉｌｌｕｓｔｒａｔｅｓ               ａ               ｃｒｕｃｉａｌ               ｓｔａｇｅ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ.

Ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               1200ｓ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               1800ｓ,               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｎｏｍｉｎａｌｌｙ               ｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｇｅｎｅｒａｌ               ｐｒａｃｔｉｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               (ｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｈｉａｔｕｓ               ｔｈｅｒｅｏｆ).

Ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ,               ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ,               ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｅｓｓｅｎｃｅ               ｆｒｏｍ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               ａｎｄ               ｅｘｉｓｔｅｄ               ａｓ               ａ               ｕｎｉｑｕｅ               ａｐｐａｒａｔｕｓ.
               Ｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ               ｂｅｌｉｅｖｅ               ｃｕｒｒｅｎｔ               ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｉｏｎｓ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｏｒｉｇｉｎａｔｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈ               ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ               (Ｗｉｌｌｉａｍ               Ｗｈｅｗｅｌｌ               ｉｎｉｔｉａｌｌｙ               ｃｏｉｎｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｓｔ               ｉｎ               1833).

Ｐｒｉｏｒ               ｔｏ               ｔｈａｔ,               ｍｅｎ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               (ｏｆｔｅｎ               ｓｙｎｏｎｙｍｏｕｓ               ｗｉｔｈ               'ｍｅｎ               ｏｆ               ｆａｉｔｈ')               ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｅｄ               ｔｈｅｍｓｅｌｖｅｓ               ｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓ               ｏｆ               'ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ'               ｏｒ               'ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ,'               ａｎｄ               ｐｒａｃｔｉｃｅｄ               ａ               ｍｕｃｈ               ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔ               ｆｏｒｍ               ｏｆ               ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｏｎ               ｔｈｅｎ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｔｗｅｎｔｙ-ｆｉｒｓｔ-ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ               ｃｏｕｎｔｅｒｐａｒｔｓ.

Ｅｘａｍｉｎｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｔｈｅｎ               ｌｅａｄｓ               ｔｏ               ａ               ｃｏｍｐｌｅｘ               ｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎ,               ａｓ               Ｐｅｔｅｒ               Ｈａｒｒｉｓｏｎ               ｏｆ               Ｂｏｎｄ               Ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ               ｉｌｌｕｓｔｒａｔｅｓ:               "Ｔｈｉｓ               ｃｌａｉｍ               ｈａｓ               ｏｂｖｉｏｕｓ               ｒａｍｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｓ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｏｓｅ               ｗｈｏｓｅ               ｃｏｎｃｅｒｎ               ｌｉｅｓ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｐａｓｔ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,               ｆｏｒ               ｉｆ               ｉｔ               ｉｓ               ｔｒｕｅ,               ｓｕｃｈ               ａ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｃａｎｎｏｔ               ｂｅ               ｏｌｄｅｒ               ｔｈａｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈ               ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ."[ｖｉ]               Ｗｉｔｈ               ｉｔｓ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙ               ｒｅｃｅｎｔ               ｃｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎ               ａｓ               ｗｅｌｌ-ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｅｕｒｏｐｅａｎ               Ｅｎｌｉｇｈｔｅｎｍｅｎｔ-ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,               ｃｏｎｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｌｙ,               ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｓａｍｅ               ｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｓ.[ｖｉｉ]
               Ｒｅｃｅｎｔ               ｄｅｂａｔｅ               ａｍｏｎｇ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉａｎｓ               ｏｖｅｒ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅ               ｓｔａｎｄｓ               ｔｏ               ｃｈａｎｇｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎａｌ               ｖｉｅｗ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ.

Ｔｒａｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌ               ｖｉｅｗｓ               ｐｉｔ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｉｎ               ｌｉｎｅ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｉｒｅｃｔ               ｓｕｃｃｅｓｓｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               ｃｌａｉｍｉｎｇ               ｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｏｎｓ               ｏｎｌｙ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｅｒｉｏｄｓ               ｏｆ               ｔｉｍｅ,               ａｎｄ               ｓｔａｇｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔ.

Ｎｅｗ               ｉｎｔｅｒｐｒｅｔａｔｉｏｎｓ               ｄｉｓｓｅｎｔ               ｆｒｏｍ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｖｉｅｗ,               ｒｅａｌｉｇｎｉｎｇ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｏｕｔｓｉｄｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｆｉｎｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ.

Ａｎｄｒｅｗ               Ｃｕｎｎｉｎｇｈａｍ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               Ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ               ｏｆ               Ｃａｍｂｒｉｄｇｅ               ａｒｇｕｅｓ               ｔｈａｔ               "Ａｓ               ａ               ｒｅｓｕｌｔ,               ｗｅ               ｈａｖｅ               ｎｏ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ａｓ               ｓｕｃｈ,               ｏｎｌｙ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｅｓ               ｏｆ               'ｍｅｄｉｅｖａｌ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ'               ａｎｄ               ｏｆ               'ｅａｒｌｙ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ.'"[ｖｉｉｉ]               Ｔｈｉｓ               ｐｒｅｓｕｍｅｄ               ｃｏｎｔｉｎｕｉｔｙ               ｉｇｎｏｒｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｘｉｓｔｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ａｓ               ａ               ｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ,               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ.

Ｉｎ               ｆａｃｔ,               ａ               ｄｅｍａｒｃａｔｉｏｎ               ｅｘｉｓｔｅｄ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｗｏ               ｍｏｄｅｌｓ.

Ｓｉｍｏｎ               Ｓｃｈａｆｆｅｒ               ｐｏｓｉｔｅｄ               "Ｔｈｅ               ｅｎｄ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｗａｓ               ａｃｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｔｈｅ               ａｐｐｅａｒａｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｍｏｄｅｌｓ               ｏｆ               ｄｉｓｃｏｖｅｒｙ               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ａｐｐｅａｌｅｄ               ｔｏ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ               ａｎｄ               ｔｏ               ｇｅｎｉｕｓ,               ａｎｄ               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｈａｖｅ               ｄｏｍｉｎａｔｅｄ               ｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｅｖｅｒ               ｓｉｎｃｅ."[ｉｘ]               Ｓｉｍｉｌａｒｌｙ,               Ｗｉｌｌｉａｍ               Ｗｈｅｗｅｌｌ               ａｒｇｕｅｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｒａｉｎｅｄ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｓｔｓ               ｓｉｇｎａｌｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｌｏｓｅ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ.[ｘ]
               Ｐｈｉｌｉｓｏｐｈｉａ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌｉｓ,               ｏｒ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ,               ａｓ               ｄｅｍｏｎｓｔｒａｔｅｄ,               ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｄ               ｆｒｏｍ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｉｎ               ａ               ｍｕｌｔｉｔｕｄｅ               ｏｆ               ｗａｙｓ.

Ｅｘｔａｎｔ               ｐｒｉｏｒ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ａｐｐｌｉｅｄ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｏｂｊｅｃｔｉｖｅ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｅ.

Ｆｉｒｓｔ               ｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｅｄ               ｂｙ               Ｒｏｂｅｒｔ               Ｂｏｙｌｅ               ｉｎ               1686,               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｏｎｌｙ               ｇａｉｎｅｄ               ｃｏｎｎｏｔａｔｉｏｎ               ａｓ               ａｎ               ｅｎｔｉｔｙ               ｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔ               ｆｒｏｍ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｆｔｅｒ               ｈｉｓ               ｄｅａｔｈ,               ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉａｎｓ               ａｐｐｌｙ               ｉｔ               ｔｏ               ｅａｒｌｉｅｒ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｃａｌ               ｆｉｇｕｒｅｓ.

Ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｆｏｒｅｒｕｎｎｅｒ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｏｆｔｅｎ               ｏｐｅｒａｔｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｃｏｎｊｕｎｃｔｉｏｎ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ａｎｄ               ｏｔｈｅｒ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｉｃａｌ               ｔｏｏｌｓ.

Ｃｕｎｎｉｎｇｈａｍ               ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｚｅｄ               ｉｔ               ａｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｏｆ               "Ｇｏｄ'ｓ               ａｃｈｉｅｖｅｍｅｎｔｓ,               Ｇｏｄ'ｓ               ｉｎｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｓ,               Ｇｏｄ'ｓ               ｐｕｒｐｏｓｅｓ,               Ｇｏｄ'ｓ               ｍｅｓｓａｇｅｓ               ｔｏ               ｍａｎ."[ｘｉ]               Ｔｈｅ               ｄｉｖｉｎｅ-ｈｕｍａｎｉｔｙ               ｏｆ               Ｃｈｒｉｓｔ-ｔｈｅ               ｓｉｍｕｌｔａｎｅｏｕｓ               ａｃｔｉｖｉｔｙ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｗｏ               ｎａｔｕｒｅｓ-ｎｉｃｅｌｙ               ｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅ               ｊｕｘｔａｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ               ｅｖｉｄｅｎｔ               ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｔｉｍｅ.

Ｆｒｅｑｕｅｎｔｌｙ,               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌ               ｏｒ               ｓｐｉｒｉｔｕａｌ               ｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓ               ｆｕｅｌｅｄ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｏｎ.

Ｆｏｒ               ｅｘａｍｐｌｅ,               Ｃｈａｒｌｏｔｔｅ               Ｍｅｔｈｕｅｎ               ｃｌａｉｍｓ               ｔｈａｔ,               "ｃｅｒｔａｉｎ               ｆｏｒｍｕｌａｔｉｏｎｓ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｏｃｔｒｉｎｅ               ｏｆ               ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｎｃｅ,               ｗｉｔｈ               ｉｔｓ               ａｓｓｕｍｐｔｉｏｎ               ｔｈａｔ               Ｇｏｄ               ｂｏｔｈ               ｃｒｅａｔｅｄ               ａｎｄ               ｓｕｓｔａｉｎｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｗｏｒｌｄ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｇｏｏｄ               ｏｆ               ｉｔｓ               ｈｕｍａｎ               ｉｎｈａｂｉｔａｎｔｓ;               ｃｏｕｌｄ               ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅ               ａｎ               ｉｍｐｕｌｓｅ               ｔｏｗａｒｄｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｗｏｒｌｄ."[ｘｉｉ]               Ｉｎ               ｔｅｒｍｓ               ｏｆ               ｌｏｇｉｃ:               Ｇｏｄ               ｃｒｅａｔｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｗｏｒｌｄ.

Ａ               ｇｒｅａｔｅｒ               ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ               ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｄ               ａ               ｇｒｅａｔｅｒ               ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ               ｏｆ               Ｇｏｄ'ｓ               ｃｒｅａｔｉｏｎ;               ｔｈｕｓ               ａ               ｇｒｅａｔｅｒ               ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ               ｏｆ               Ｇｏｄ.
               Ａｎ               ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔ               ｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｏｎ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ               ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｉｔｓ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｐｒｏｇｅｎｉｔｏｒｓ               ｒｅｆｌｅｃｔｓ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ'ｓ               ｓｙｍｂｉｏｔｉｃ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               (ｄｅｖｏｉｄ               ｏｆ               ｃｏｕｒｓｅ               ｉｎ               ｔｏｄａｙ'ｓ               ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔ).

Ｉｎ               ｆａｃｔ,               ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ,               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ｏｐｅｒａｔｅｄ               ｈｏｍｏｇｅｎｅｏｕｓｌｙ               (ｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ),               ｅｓｐｏｕｓｅｄ               ｕｎｄｅｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｇｅｎｒｅ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｉｎｃｏｒｐｏｒａｔｅｄ               ｉｎｔｅｌｌｅｃｔｕａｌ               ａｎｄ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｉｃａｌ               ｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓ               ｉｎｓｔｉｇａｔｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌ               ｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｓ,               ｍｕｃｈ               ｉｎ               ｃｏｎｔｒａｓｔ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ,               ｓｅｃｕｌａｒ               ｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎ               ａｓ               ａ               ｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃ               ａｒｒａｎｇｅｍｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               ｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｈｙｓｉｃａｌ               ｏｒ               ｍａｔｅｒｉａｌ               ｗｏｒｌｄ,               ｇａｉｎｅｄ               ｔｈｒｏｕｇｈ               ｏｂｓｅｒｖａｔｉｏｎ               ａｎｄ               ｅｘｐｅｒｉｍｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ,               ａｎｄ               ｅｘｈｉｂｉｔｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｏｐｅｒａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｇｅｎｅｒａｌ               ｌａｗｓ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｉｎｅｘｔｒｉｃａｂｌｅ               ｃｏｎｎｅｃｔｉｏｎ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ａｎｄ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ               ｉｎ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｍａｄｅ               ｉｔ               ｉｍｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅ               ｔｏ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｅｉｔｈｅｒ               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔｌｙ.

Ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉａｎｓ               ｔｅｎｄ               ｔｏ               ｄｒａｗ               ｏｎ               ａ               ｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ               ｂａｓｅ               ｏｆ               ｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅ               ｗｈｅｎ               ｓｔｕｄｙｉｎｇ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ'ｓ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ.

Ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉａｎ               Ｃｈａｒｌｅｓ               Ｗｅｂｓｔｅｒ               ｅｘｐｌａｉｎｓ               ｔｈａｔ,               "Ｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎｓ               ａｂｏｕｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               ａｃｔｉｖｉｔｙ...ａｒｅ               ｂａｓｅｄ               ｎｏｔ               ｏｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｍｐａｒｔｉａｌ               ａｎｄ               ｅｘｈａｕｓｔｉｖｅ               ｅｘａｍｉｎａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｅｖｉｄｅｎｃｅ,               ｂｕｔ               ａｒｅ               ｒａｔｈｅｒ               ｄｉｃｔａｔｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｑｕｉｒｅｍｅｎｔｓ               ｏｆ               ｃｕｒｒｅｎｔ               ｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｙ,               ａｎｄ               ｄｅｓｃｒｉｂｅ               ｎｏｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ａｃｔｕａｌｌｙ               ｅｘｉｓｔｅｄ,               ｂｕｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｉｔ               ｉｓ               ｆｅｌｔ               ｏｕｇｈｔ               ｔｏ               ｈａｖｅ               ｅｘｉｓｔｅｄ               ｏｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｂａｓｉｓ               ｏｆ               ｐｒｅｓｅｎｔ-ｄａｙ               ｏｐｉｎｉｏｎ               ａｂｏｕｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｅｔｈｏｄｏｌｏｇｙ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ."[ｘｉｉｉ]
               Ｔｈｅ               ａｂｉｌｉｔｙ               ｔｏ               ｃｌａｓｓｉｆｙ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｅｔｈｏｄｓ               ｏｆ               ｅａｒｌｉｅｒ               ｐｒａｃｔｉｔｉｏｎｅｒｓ               ａｓ               ｉｎｃｏｎｇｒｕｅｎｔ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓ               ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｏｐｐｏｒｔｕｎｉｔｙ               ｔｏ               ｆｒｕｉｔｆｕｌｌｙ               ｅｘｐｌｏｒｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ.

Ｃｏｎｇｒｕｅｎｔｌｙ,               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓ               ｉｎｓｐｉｒｅｄ               ｂｙ               Ａｒｉｓｔｏｔｌｅ,               ｃｌａｓｓｉｆｉｅｄ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ               ｉｎｔｏ               ｔｈｒｅｅ               "ｓｐｅｃｕｌａｔｉｖｅ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ."               Ｔｈｅ               ｓｐｅｃｕｌａｔｉｖｅ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ               ｉｎｃｌｕｄｅｄ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               (ｐｈｙｓｉｃｓ),               ｍａｔｈｅｍａｔｉｃｓ,               ａｎｄ               ｍｅｔａｐｈｙｓｉｃｓ               (ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｏｒ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ).[ｘｉｖ].
               Ｔｈｅ               ｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈ               ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ               ｗｉｔｎｅｓｓｅｄ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ'ｓ               ｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｃｅ               ａｓ               ａ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ               ｆｒｅｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ｏｒ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ.

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｓｐｌｉｔ               ｅｎａｂｌｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ｔｏ               ｅｘｉｓｔ,               ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈ               ｓｏｍｅ               ｂｏｕｎｄａｒｉｅｓ               ｔｅｎｄｅｄ               ｔｏ               ｂｌｕｒ.

Ｂｕｔ,               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｆｉｒｓｔ               ｔｉｍｅ,               ｉｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎｓ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               ｐｒａｃｔｉｔｉｏｎｅｒｓ               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               ｃｌｅｒｉｃａｌ               ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅｓ.

Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               ａｓ               ａｎ               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔ               ｅｎｔｉｔｙ               ｅｓｐｏｕｓｅｄ               ａ               ｐｒｏｆｅｓｓｉｏｎａｌｉｓｍ.

Ｔｈｅ               Ｂｒｉｔｉｓｈ               Ａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｉｏｎ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               Ａｄｖａｎｃｅｍｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｐｐｅａｒｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               1830ｓ,               ｆｏｌｌｏｗｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｏｔｈｅｒｓ.

Ａｓ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｐｒｏｆｅｓｓｉｏｎａｌｉｚｅｄ,               ｅｎｃｏｍｐａｓｓｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｖａｒｉｏｕｓ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｅｍｐｉｒｉｃａｌ               ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ,               ａ               ｎｅｗ               ｓｅｔ               ｏｆ               ｐｒｏｆｅｓｓｉｏｎａｌ               ｃｏｍｍｉｔｍｅｎｔｓ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｉｅｓ               ｍａｔｅｒｉａｌｉｚｅｄ.

Ｉｎｃｒｅａｓｉｎｇｌｙ,               ｔｈｅ               ｃｌｅｒｇｙ               ｒｅｌｕｃｔａｎｔｌｙ               ｒｅｌｉｎｑｕｉｓｈｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｈｅｇｅｍｏｎｙ               ｔｈｅｙ               ｈｅｌｄ               ｏｖｅｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｗｏｎｄｅｒｓ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ.

Ａ.Ｗ.

Ｂｅｎｎ               ｎｏｔｅｄ,               "Ａ               ｇｒｅａｔ               ｐａｒｔ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｖｅｒｅｎｃｅ               ｏｎｃｅ               ｇｉｖｅｎ               ｔｏ               ｐｒｉｅｓｔｓ               ａｎｄ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｓｔｏｒｉｅｓ               ｏｆ               ａｎ               ｕｎｓｅｅｎ               ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｅ               ｈａｓ               ｂｅｅｎ               ｔｒａｎｓｆｏｒｍｅｄ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ａｓｔｒｏｎｏｍｅｒ,               ｔｈｅ               ｇｅｏｌｏｇｉｓｔ,               ｔｈｅ               ｐｈｙｓｉｃｉａｎ,               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｎｇｉｎｅｅｒ."[ｘｖ]               Ｂｙ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔａｒｔ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｗｅｎｔｉｅｔｈ               ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ,               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｓｔｏｏｄ               ｄｅｖｏｉｄ               ｏｆ               ｉｔｓ               ｆｏｒｍｅｒ               ｅｔｈｉｃａｌ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌ               ｐａｒｔｎｅｒｓ.

Ｔｈｅ               "ｗｏｎｄｅｒｓ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ"               ｂｅｃａｍｅ               ｔｈｅ               "ｗｏｎｄｅｒｓ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ."               [ｘｖｉ]
               Ｓｉｍｉｌａｒ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ               ｏｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               ｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ               ａｐｐｒｏｘｉｍａｔｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,               ｉｎ               ｉｔｓ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ,               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙ               ｒｅｃｅｎｔ               ｐｅｒｉｏｄ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               Ｅｕｒｏｐｅａｎ               Ｅｎｌｉｇｈｔｅｎｍｅｎｔ.

Ｗｉｌｆｒｅｄ               Ｃａｎｔｗｅｌｌ               Ｓｍｉｔｈ               ｄｅｓｃｒｉｂｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｏｒｉｇｉｎａｔｉｏｎ,               ｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ,               "Ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔ               'ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,'               ｔｈｅｎ,               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｗｅｓｔ               ｈａｓ               ｅｖｏｌｖｅｄ.

Ｉｔｓ               ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ               ｈａｓ               ｉｎｃｌｕｄｅｄ               ａ               ｌｏｎｇ-ｒａｎｇｅ               ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔ               ｔｈａｔ               ｗｅ               ｍａｙ               ｔｅｒｍ               ａ               ｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ               ｏｆ               ｒｅｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎ:               ｍｅｎｔａｌｌｙ               ｍａｋｉｎｇ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ｉｎｔｏ               ａ               ｔｈｉｎｇ,               ｇｒａｄｕａｌｌｙ               ｃｏｍｉｎｇ               ｔｏ               ｃｏｎｃｅｉｖｅ               ｉｔ               ａｓ               ａｎ               ｏｂｊｅｃｔｉｖｅ               ｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃ               ｅｎｔｉｔｙ."[ｘｖｉｉ]               Ｔｈｉｓ               'ｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃ               ｅｎｔｉｔｙ'               ｓｈｉｆｔｅｄ               ｆｏｃｕｓ               ｆｒｏｍ               ｄｅｖｏｔｉｏｎ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｅａｒｃｈ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｒｕｔｈ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｚａｔｉｏｎ               ａｌｓｏ               ａｌｌｏｗｅｄ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎｓ,               ａｎｄ               ｃｏｎｓｅｑｕｅｎｔｌｙ               ｉｎｓｔｉｇａｔｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｃｏｍｐａｒａｔｉｖｅ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ.

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｐｒａｃｔｉｃｅ,               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｚａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｐｅｏｐｌｅ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｂｅｌｉｅｆｓ,               ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｄ               ａ               ｆｒａｍｅ               ｏｆ               ｒｅｆｅｒｅｎｃｅ               ｆｏｒ               Ｗｅｓｔｅｒｎ               ｓｅｃｕｒｉｔｉｚａｔｉｏｎ.

Ｓｕｂｓｅｑｕｅｎｔ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               Ａｇｅ               ｏｆ               Ｄｉｓｃｏｖｅｒｙ,               ａｎｄ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｆａｂｒｉｃａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               'ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,'               Ｗｅｓｔｅｒｎ               ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈ               ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ               ｒｅｃｏｇｎｉｚｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               "ｂｉｒｔｈ"               ｏｆ               ｏｔｈｅｒ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎｓ:               Ｈｉｎｄｕｉｓｍ,               Ｔａｏｉｓｍ,               Ｂｕｄｄｈｉｓｍ,               ａｎｄ               Ｃｏｎｆｕｃｉａｎｉｓｍ;               ａｌｌ               ｏｆ               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｅｘｉｓｔｅｄ               ｍｕｃｈ               ｅａｒｌｉｅｒ.

Ｂｕｔ               ｔｈｅ               'ｃｒｅａｔｉｏｎ'               ｏｆ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ａｌｌｏｗｅｄ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｍｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               ｕｎｉｑｕｅ               ｂｏｄｉｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｆａｉｔｈ.[ｘｖｉｉｉ]
               Ｔｈｅ               ｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈ               ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ,               ａｓ               ｉｔ               ｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｓ               ａｎ               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔ               ｅｎｔｉｔｙ,               ａｌｓｏ               ｒｅｃｏｇｎｉｚｅｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ａｓ               ａｎ               ｉｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎ               ｆｒｅｅ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ.

Ｗｉｔｈ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ｂｏｔｈ               ａｕｔｏｎｏｍｏｕｓ               ｅｎｔｉｔｉｅｓ,               ｔｈｅ               ｕｒｇｅ               ｔｏ               ｐｅｒｐｅｔｕａｔｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｘｉｓｔｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｃｏｎｆｌｉｃｔ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｗｏ               ｂｅｃａｍｅ               ａｔｔｒａｃｔｉｖｅ.

Ａｄｖｏｃａｔｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｎａｓｃｅｎｔ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               ｍｏｖｅｍｅｎｔ               ｓａｗ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌ               ｂｅｎｅｆｉｔ               ｏｆ               ｐｉｔｔｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｃａｕｓｅ               ａｇａｉｎｓｔ               ｔｈｅ               ｈｅｇｅｍｏｎｉｃ               ｉｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               Ｃｈｕｒｃｈ,               ｇｉｖｉｎｇ               ｂｉｒｔｈ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ-ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ａｐｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ               ｍｙｔｈ.

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｍｙｔｈ               ｃｌａｉｍｓ               ｔｈａｔ               ａ               ｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌ               ｒｉｆｔ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎｓ               ｅｘｉｓｔｅｄ               ａｎｄ               ｈａｓ               ｆｏｍｅｎｔｅｄ               ｏｖｅｒ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｕｒｓｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｔｅｎｕｏｕｓ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ.

Ｗｈｅｔｈｅｒ               ｅｘｔａｎｔ               ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｎａｓｃｅｎｔ               ｓｔａｇｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｏｒ               ｎｏｔ,               ｔｈｅ               ｔｗｏ               ｉｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｉｏｎｓ               ｃｌｅａｒｌｙ               ｅｖｏｌｖｅｄ               ｉｎｔｏ               ｓｅｐａｒａｔｅ               ｅｎｔｉｔｉｅｓ,               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｏｔｈｅｒ,               ａｎｄ               ｓｏｍｅｔｉｍｅｓ               ｏｃｃｕｐｙｉｎｇ               ｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｓ               ｏｆ               ｏｐｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎ.
               Ｔｈｅ               ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ,               ｎｅｇｌｅｃｔｅｄ               ｓｏ               ｆａｒ,               ａｌｓｏ               ｐｌａｙｅｄ               ａｎ               ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔ               ｒｏｌｅ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ/ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎ.

Ａｓ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅｓｅ               ｐｒｅｖｉｏｕｓ               ｔｅｒｍｓ,               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙ               ｙｏｕｎｇ               "ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ"               ａｐｐｅａｒｅｄ               ａｓ               ａ               ｎｅｗ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ               ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ.

Ｆｉｒｓｔ               ａｐｐｅａｒｉｎｇ               ｉｎ               Ｐｌａｔｏ'ｓ               Ｒｅｐｕｂｌｉｃ,               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍ               ｉｓ               ａ               ｃｏｍｂｉｎａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｏｓ,               ｍｅａｎｉｎｇ               ｇｏｄ,               ａｎｄ               ｌｏｇｏｓ,               ｍｅａｎｉｎｇ               ｒａｔｉｏｎａｌ               ｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅ,               ａｎｄ               ｄｅｆｉｎｅｄ               ａｓ               ｒｅａｓｏｎｅｄ               ｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ               ａｂｏｕｔ               Ｇｏｄ.

Ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｉａｎｓ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｔｈｅ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ               ｏｆ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｕｓ               ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ,               ｏｒ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｕｓ               ｔｒａｄｉｔｉｏｎｓ;               ｄｅｆｅｎｄ               ｄｏｃｔｒｉｎｅｓ               ｏｒ               ｃｏｍｐａｒｅ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｕｓ               ｔｒａｄｉｔｉｏｎｓ.

Ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ,               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｂｕｒｇｅｏｎｉｎｇ               ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ               ｓｙｓｔｅｍ,               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ｔｏｏ               ｆｅｌｌ               ｕｎｄｅｒ               ｔｈｅ               ａｕｓｐｉｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ.

Ｉｔ               ｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｄ               ｆｉｒｍ               ｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅ               (ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ),               ｐｒｏｍｐｔｉｎｇ               ｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ               ｔｏ               ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒ               ｉｔ               ａ               ｒａｔｉｏｎａｌ               ｏｂｊｅｃｔ               (ｏｂｖｉｏｕｓｌｙ               ａ               ｃｏｎｔｒａｄｉｃｔｉｏｎ               ｉｎ               ｔｏｄａｙ'ｓ               ｔｅｒｍｓ,               ｂｕｔ               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｍａｋｅｓ               ｓｅｎｓｅ               ｗｈｅｎ               ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔａｌ               ｓｔａｇｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ｒｅｌｉｅｄ               ｏｎ               ｒｅａｓｏｎ               ｒａｔｈｅｒ               ｔｈａｎ               ｏｎ               ｆａｉｔｈ).

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｓｅｎｓｅ               ｓｔｉｌｌ,               ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ,               ｃｏｎｆｌｉｃｔｓ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｕｓａｇｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍ.[ｘｉｘ]
               Ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｅｓ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ               ｏｆｔｅｎ               ｕｓｅ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ｉｎｔｅｒｃｈａｎｇｅａｂｌｅ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍｓ,               ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ,               ａｒｅ               ｎｏｔ               ｓｙｎｏｎｙｍｏｕｓ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｆｉｒｓｔ               ｅｓｐｏｕｓｅｓ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｓ               ｏｆ               ａ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ,               ｏｒ               ｍｅｃｈａｎｉｓｍ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｌａｔｔｅｒ,               ａ               ｔｅｒｍ               ｗｈｉｃｈ               ｃｏｍｅｓ               ａｌｏｎｇ               ｍｕｃｈ               ｌａｔｅｒ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈａｔ               ｄｅｓｃｒｉｂｅｓ               ａｎ               ｏｂｊｅｃｔｉｖｅ               ｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃ               ｅｎｔｉｔｙ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｂｉｒｔｈ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ａｓ               ａ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ               ｓｉｇｎａｌｅｄ               ａｎ               ｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｏｂｊｅｃｔｉｖｅ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｏｆ               Ｇｏｄ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔａｔｅ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               ｄｉｓｃｏｖｅｒｙ               ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｔｉｍｅ.

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ               ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｄ               ａ               ｎｏｎｂｅｌｌｉｇｅｒｅｎｔ               ａｔｍｏｓｐｈｅｒｅ               ｆｏｒ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ｔｏ               ａｃｈｉｅｖｅ               ｉｔｓ               ｐｕｒｐｏｓｅ.
               Ｍｉｒｒｏｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ               ｔｒａｎｓｆｏｒｍｅｄ               ｆｒｏｍ               ａ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               ｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ               ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               Ｇｏｄ               ａｎｄ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ               ｔｏ               ｏｎｅ               ｃｏｍｐｌｅｔｅｌｙ               ｄｅｖｏｉｄ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               ｐｒｅｏｃｃｕｐｉｅｄ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｐｕｒｓｕｉｔ               ｏｆ               ｔｒｕｔｈ               ｔｈｒｏｕｇｈ               ｓｃｒｉｐｔｕｒｅ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｔｕｄｙ               ｏｆ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ.

Ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ,               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｉｅｓ               ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎ               ｃｏｉｎｃｉｄｅｄ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈａｔ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ｉｎ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｔｒｉｎｉｔｙ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｓｅ               ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｓ               ｃｏｍｐｒｉｓｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｕｎｉｑｕｅ               ｃｏｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｉｓ               ｐｅｒｉｏｄ.
               Ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｅｄ               ｉｔｓｅｌｆ               ｂｙ               ｃｒｅａｔｉｎｇ               ａｎ               ａｔｍｏｓｐｈｅｒｅ               ａｍｉｃａｂｌｅ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｙ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｈａｒｍｏｎｙ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｓｅ               ｔｈｒｅｅ               ｉｄｅａｓ,               ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈ               ｓｈｏｒｔ               ｌｉｖｅｄ,               ｍａｄｅ               ｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｇｒｏｗｔｈ               ａｎｄ               ｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｅａｃｈ               ａｓ               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔ               ｅｎｔｉｔｉｅｓ.

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｈａｒｍｏｎｙ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｓｅ               ｔｈｒｅｅ               ｉｄｅａｓ,               ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈ               ｓｈｏｒｔ               ｌｉｖｅｄ,               ｍａｄｅ               ｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅ               ｔｈｅ               ｇｒｏｗｔｈ               ａｎｄ               ｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｅａｃｈ               ａｓ               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔ               ｅｎｔｉｔｉｅｓ.

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｈａｒｍｏｎｙ,               ｔｈｅ               ｐｒｏｄｕｃｔ               ｏｆ               ａｎ               ｉｎｔｅｒｓｅｃｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌ               ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ               ａｎｄ               Ｃｈｒｉｓｔｉａｎ               ｈｅｇｅｍｏｎｙ-ａｌｔｏｇｅｔｈｅｒ               ｉｍｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅ               ｉｎ               ｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ               Ｗｅｓｔｅｒｎ               ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ-ｂｅｃｏｍｅｓ               ｕｎｓｕｒｐｒｉｓｉｎｇ               ｗｈｅｎ               ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ               ｏｆ               ａｎ               ｅｐｏｃｈ               ｄｏｍｉｎａｔｅｄ               ｂｙ               ｔｈｅ               Ｃａｔｈｏｌｉｃ               Ｃｈｕｒｃｈ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｐｉｃｔｕｒｅ               ｂｅｃｏｍｅｓ               ｃｌｅａｒｅｒ               ａｌｓｏ               ｗｉｔｈ               ｔｈｅ               ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｓｅ               ｔｈｒｅｅ               ｅｎｔｉｔｉｅｓ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｐｕｓｈ               ｔｏｗａｒｄｓ               ｒｅｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ,               ｉｔｓ               ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｃｅ,               ａｎｄ               ｉｔｓ               ｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｏｎ               ｆｒｏｍ               ｔｈｅ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｃｏｎｃｅｐｔ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ｍａｙ               ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅ               ａ               ｄｅｍｙｓｔｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｎｆｌｉｃｔ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               ａｍｂｉｇｕｏｕｓ               ｎａｔｕｒｅ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ.
               'Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ'               ａｎｄ               'Ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,'               ｄｕｒｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｃｏｅｘｉｓｔｅｄ               ａｓ               ａ               ｈｏｍｏｇｅｎｏｕｓ               ｅｎｔｉｔｙ               ｉｎ               ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ,               ａｎｄ               ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｅｄ               ａｓ               ａ               ｔｏｏｌ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌ               ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｏｎ.

Ｔｈｉｓ               ｓｔａｔｅ               ｏｆ               ｈｏｍｏｇｅｎｅｉｔｙ               ｐｒｅｖｅｎｔｅｄ               ａ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｗｏ,               ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ,               ｕｎｔｉｌ               ｈｅ               ｅｓｔａｂｌｉｓｈｍｅｎｔ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ               ａｓ               ｓｅｐａｒａｔｅ               ｅｎｔｉｔｉｅｓ-ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｓｅｖｅｎｔｅｅｎｔｈ               ａｎｄ               ｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎ               ｃｅｎｔｕｒｉｅｓ,               ｒｅｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙ-ａｌｌｏｗｅｄ               ａ               ｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐ               ｔｏ               ｅｓｔａｂｌｉｓｈ.

Ｔｈｅ               ｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｃｅ               ａｌｓｏ               ｓｉｇｎａｌｅｄ               ｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌ               ｃｈａｎｇｅｓ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓ               ａｎｄ               ｏｒｉｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｓ.

Ｔｈｅｓｅ               ｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌ               ｃｈａｎｇｅｓ               ｐｒｅｃｉｐｉｔａｔｅｄ               ｔｈｅ               ｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               ｄｅｃｅｄｅｎｔｓ,               ａｎｄ               ｃｏｍｐｌｉｃａｔｅｄ               ｔｈｅｉｒ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｃａｌ               ｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ.

Ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈ               ｏｆｔｅｎ               ｏｖｅｒｌｏｏｋｅｄ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ               ｏｆ               ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ｓｔａｎｄｓ               ａｓ               ａ               ｕｎｉｑｕｅ               ｃｏｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅ               ｏｆ               ｉｄｅａｓ               ｂｅｎｅｆｉｃｉａｌ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               ｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｓｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               Ｍｉｄｄｌｅ               ａｎｄ               ｌａｔｅ               Ｍｉｄｄｌｅ               Ａｇｅｓ.
               Ｎｏｔｅｓ
               [ｉ]               Ｌｅｗｉｓ               Ｗ.

Ｓｐｉｔｚ,               Ｔｈｅ               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               Ｒｅｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ               Ｍｏｖｅｍｅｎｔｓ,               Ｖｏｌ.

1               (Ｓｔ.

Ｌｏｕｉｓ:               1987):               180;
               Ｈｅｒｂｅｒｔ               Ｂｕｔｔｅｒｆｉｅｌｄ,               Ｔｈｅ               Ｏｒｉｇｉｎｓ               ｏｆ               Ｍｏｄｅｒｎ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               (Ｎｅｗ               Ｙｏｒｋ:               1960):               37.
               [ｉｉ]               Ｐｅｔｅｒ               Ｈａｒｒｉｓｏｎ,               "'Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ'               ａｎｄ               'Ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ':               Ｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｂｏｕｎｄａｒｉｅｓ,"               Ｊｏｕｒｎａｌ               ｏｆ               Ｒｅｌｉｇｉｏｎ,               Ｖｏｌ.

86,               Ｎｏ.

1               (Ｊａｎ.

2006):               82.
               [ｉｉｉ]               Ａｎｄｒｅｗ               Ｃｕｎｎｉｎｇｈａｍ,               "Ｔｈｅ               Ｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ               ｏｆ               Ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               Ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ.

Ａ               Ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｅ               ｔｏ               Ｅｄｗａｒｄ               Ｇｒａｎｔ,"               Ｅａｒｌｙ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               ａｎｄ               Ｍｅｄｉｃｉｎｅ,               Ｖｏｌ.

5,               Ｎｏ.

3.

(2000):               260.
               [ｉｖ]               Ｇ.

Ｅ.

Ｒ.

Ｌｌｏｙｄ,               Ｅａｒｌｙ               Ｇｒｅｅｋ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               (Ｎｅｗ               Ｙｏｒｋ:               Ｎｏｒｔｏｎ,               1970),               ｉｖ.
               [ｖ]               Ｈａｒｒｉｓｏｎ,               82.
               [ｖｉ]               Ｈａｒｒｉｓｏｎ,               81.
               [ｖｉｉ]               Ｈａｒｒｉｓｏｎ,               86.
               [ｖｉｉｉ]               Ｃｕｎｎｉｎｇｈａｍ,               260.
               [ｉｘ]               Ｓｉｍｏｎ               Ｓｃｈａｆｆｅｒ,               "Ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃ               Ｄｉｓｃｏｖｅｒｉｅｓ               ａｎｄ               ｔｈｅ               Ｅｎｄ               ｏｆ               Ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               Ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ,"               Ｓｏｃｉａｌ               Ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ               ｏｆ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               Ｖｏｌ.

16,               Ｎｏ.

3.

(Ａｕｇ.,               1986):               407.
               [ｘ]               Ｗｈｅｗｅｌｌ,               Ｗｉｌｌｉａｍ,               Ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               Ｉｎｄｕｃｔｉｖｅ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ               ｆｒｏｍ               ｔｈｅ               Ｅａｒｌｉｅｓｔ               ｔｏ               ｔｈｅ               Ｐｒｅｓｅｎｔ               Ｔｉｍｅ               Ｖ2               (Ｌｏｎｄｏｎ:               2006):               16.
               [ｘｉ]               Ａｎｄｒｅｗ               Ｃｕｎｎｉｎｇｈａｍ,               "Ｇｅｔｔｉｎｇ               ｔｈｅ               Ｇａｍｅ               Ｒｉｇｈｔ:               Ｓｏｍｅ               Ｐｌａｉｎ               Ｗｏｒｄｓ               ｏｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ               ａｎｄ
               Ｉｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎ               ｏｆ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,"               Ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ               ａｎｄ               Ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ               ｏｆ               Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ               19               (1988):               365.
               [ｘｉｉ]               Ｍｅｔｈｕｅｎ,               Ｃｈａｒｌｏｔｔｅ,               "Ｌｅｘ               Ｎａｔｕｒａｅ               Ａｎｄ               Ｏｒｄｏ               Ｎａｔｕｒａｅ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ               ｏｆ               Ｐｈｉｌｉｐ               Ｍｅｌａｎｃｈｔｈｏｎ,"               Ｒｅｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ               &               Ｒｅｎａｉｓｓａｎｃｅ               Ｒｅｖｉｅｗ:               Ｊｏｕｒｎａｌ               ｏｆ               ｔｈｅ               Ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ               ｆｏｒ               Ｒｅｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ               Ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ,               Ｉｓｓ.

3               (2000):               111.
               [ｘｉｉｉ]               Ｃｈａｒｌｅｓ               Ｗｅｂｓｔｅｒ,               Ｔｈｅ               Ｇｒｅａｔ               Ｉｎｓｔａｕｒａｔｉｏｎ:               Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ,               Ｍｅｄｉｃｉｎｅ,               ａｎｄ               Ｒｅｆｏｒｍ,               1626-1660               (Ｌｏｎｄｏｎ:               1975),               494;               Ｔｈｅ               ｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎ               ｏｎ               ｔｈｅ               ｔｅｒｍ               ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉａ               ａｒｅ               ｔａｋｅｎ               ｆｒｏｍ:               Ｃｕｎｎｉｎｇｈａｍ,               "Ｔｈｅ               Ｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ               ｏｆ               Ｎａｔｕｒａｌ               Ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｙ.

Ａ               Ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｅ               ｔｏ               Ｅｄｗａｒｄ               Ｇｒａｎｔ,"260-261.
               [ｘｉｖ]               Ｒｏｂｅｒｔ               Ｗ.

Ｓｃｈｍｉｄｔ,               Ｓ.Ｊ.,               Ｔｈｅ               Ｄｏｍａｉｎ               ｏｆ               Ｌｏｇｉｃ               Ａｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇ               ｔｏ               Ｓａｉｎｔ               Ｔｈｏｍａｓ               Ａｑｕｉｎａｓ               (Ｔｈｅ               Ｈａｇｕｅ,               1966):               16-18.
               [ｘｖ]               Ａ.

Ｗ.

Ｂｅｎｎ,               Ａ               Ｈｉｓｔｏｒｙ               ｏｆ               Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ               Ｒａｔｉｏｎａｌｉｓｍ               ｉｎ               ｔｈｅ               Ｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈ               Ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ,               2               ｖｏｌｓ.

(Ｌｏｎｄｏｎ:
               Ｌｏｎｇｍａｎｓ,               Ｇｒｅｅｎ,               &               Ｔｏｄｄ,               1906),               1:198.

Ｃｉｔｅｄ               ｉｎ:               Ｈａｒｒｉｓｏｎ,               88.
               [ｘｖｉ]               Ｈａｒｒｉｓｏｎ,               87.
               [ｘｖｉｉ]               Ｈａｒｒｉｓｏｎ,               91.
               [ｘｖｉｉｉ]               Ｈａｒｒｉｓｏｎ,               92-93.
               [ｘｉｘ]               Ｃｕｎｎｉｎｇｈａｍ,               260-261.






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