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About 'thomas aquinas university'|...his right to teach in Catholic universities on order of the Office for the...and theologians like Thomas Aquinas, Meister Eckhart and Hildegard of...








Science               and               religion               share               a               tumultuous               history.

In               the               secular               context               of               contemporary               Western               society,               science               and               religion               play               roles               of               almost               complete               opposition:               the               first               consisting               of               empirical               knowledge               gathered               to               prove               or               disprove;               the               latter               defined               by               a               collective               set               of               beliefs               and               ritual               commitments               centered               on               a               common               faith.

The               evolution               of               the               two               bodies               share               greater               similarities               than               differences,               commonalities               that               have               significant               influence               over               the               Middle               and               late               Middle               Ages.

During               the               Renaissance,               the               dual               categories               of               'Science'               and               'Religion'               coexisted               as               a               homogenous               entity               (although               in               much               different               evolutionary               forms),               instigated               by               religious               motives,               used               to               pursue               theological               investigation.

The               Renaissance               heralded               a               rebirth               of               interest               in               classical               thought,               culture,               and               writing.

New               appreciations               for               Greek               culture               and               classics               occupied               the               faculty               of               Renaissance               universities.

Aristotelianism,               along               with               the               works               of               Plato,               Socrates,               Thales               found               prominence               in               the               universities               in               Paris,               Salerno,               Bologna,               Padua,               Florence,               and               other               cities;               inspired               the               studies               of               St.

Thomas               Aquinas,               Philip               Melanchthon,               among               others;               and               excited               the               disciplines               of               natural               philosophy,               medicine,               and               logic.

Intellectuals               attempted               to               explain               the               plight               of               the               Middle               Ages               (ie.

the               Black               Death,               the               Little               Ice               Age,               the               Hundred               Years               War,               the               collapse               of               Constantinople,               etc.)               through               classical               thought.

The               Renaissance,               however,               engendered               little               in               the               way               of               scientific               progress-at               least               in               the               way               of               scientific               structure.

Though               some               of               the               research               paved               the               way               for               the               Scientific               Revolution,               the               intellectual               culture               of               the               Renaissance,               underlined               by               theology,               greatly               influenced               natural               investigation               and               produced               an               atmosphere               stimulating               to               scholarly               growth               yet               stunting               to               scientific               advance.

[i]
               The               contemporary               relationship               between               science               and               religion               as               two               independent,               often               adversarial               mechanisms               is               a               relatively               young               phenomenon.

Similarly,               the               modern               forms               of               the               two               disciplines               little               resemble               their               genealogical               ancestors.

Historiography               plays               a               significant               role               in               framing               this               debate.

The               definitions               of               the               terms               "Science,"               "Religion,"               and               "Natural               Philosophy,"               their               evolution               over               time,               and               the               context               in               which               each               respective               term               exists,               are               vital               to               understanding               the               significance               of               their               variable               and               contrasting               genealogies.
               The               dynamic               etymology               of               the               term               "science"               creates               difficulty               in               establishing               a               uniform               standard               of               science.

The               constant               nature               of               change               complicates               the               relationship               of               different               periods               in               time,               perpetuating               the               "anachronistic               assumption               that               the               study               of               nature               in               earlier               historical               periods               was               prosecuted               more               or               less               along               the               same               lines               as               those               adopted               by               modern               scientists."[ii]               This               potential               source               of               confusion               illustrates               the               difficulty               in               assigning               science               an               identity.

An               ambiguity               exists               between               the               modern               definition               and               that               used               during               the               middle               ages.

The               origins               of               the               term               science               stem               from               the               Latin,               scientia.

Scholars               used               scientia               to               represent               the               highest               form               of               knowledge.

During               Renaissance               times,               scholars               also               used               scientia               to               describe               the               study               of               theology               and               natural               philosophy,               deeming               them               'sciences.'               The               term,               when               used               in               this               context,               obviously               cannot               be               understood               to               relate               to               modern               definitions               of               science.

This               universal               application               of               scientia               only               helps               to               obfuscate               its               meaning.

This               illustrates               the               confusion               this               debate               conjures.[iii]
               Conventional               histories               of               science               attribute               the               Greeks               with               its               conception,               and               the               Scientific               Revolution               (the               later               stages),               in               the               nineteenth               century,               with               the               origins               of               the               "modern"               discipline.

The               science               historian               G.

E.

R.

Lloyd               contests,               however,               that,               "science               is               a               modern               category,               not               an               ancient               one:               there               is               no               one               term               that               is               exactly               equivalent               to               our               'science'               in               Greek."[iv]               Identifying               a               ubiquitous,               uniform               definition               of               science               suggests               an               anachronism.

The               history               of               the               term               implies               its               tortuous               evolution.[v]
               Although               scholars               often               overlook               the               interim               (between               the               Greek               Hellenistic               period               and               the               Scientific               Revolution),               or               consider               science               of               the               Middle               and               Late               Middle               Ages               (during               which               the               Renaissance               occurred)               inert,               this               period               illustrates               a               crucial               stage               in               the               relationship               between               science               and               religion.

Between               the               1200s               and               the               1800s,               natural               philosophy               nominally               embodied               the               general               practice               of               science               (or               the               hiatus               thereof).

Natural               philosophy,               however,               differed               in               essence               from               modern               science,               and               existed               as               a               unique               apparatus.
               Scholars               believe               current               perceptions               of               science               originated               in               the               nineteenth               century               (William               Whewell               initially               coined               the               term               scientist               in               1833).

Prior               to               that,               men               of               science               (often               synonymous               with               'men               of               faith')               considered               themselves               students               of               'natural               philosophy'               or               'natural               history,'               and               practiced               a               much               different               form               of               investigation               then               their               twenty-first-century               counterparts.

Examining               the               relationship               between               science               and               religion               during               the               Renaissance               then               leads               to               a               complex               conclusion,               as               Peter               Harrison               of               Bond               University               illustrates:               "This               claim               has               obvious               ramifications               for               those               whose               concern               lies               with               the               past               relationship               between               science               and               religion,               for               if               it               is               true,               such               a               relationship               cannot               be               older               than               the               nineteenth               century."[vi]               With               its               relatively               recent               classification               as               well-during               the               European               Enlightenment-religion,               concurrently,               provides               the               same               concerns.[vii]
               Recent               debate               among               science               historians               over               this               difference               stands               to               change               the               conventional               view               of               the               history               of               science.

Traditional               views               pit               natural               philosophy               in               line               with               the               direct               succession               of               science,               claiming               distinctions               only               in               the               periods               of               time,               and               stages               of               scientific               development.

New               interpretations               dissent               from               this               view,               realigning               natural               philosophy               outside               of               the               confines               of               science.

Andrew               Cunningham               of               the               University               of               Cambridge               argues               that               "As               a               result,               we               have               no               histories               of               natural               philosophy               as               such,               only               histories               of               'medieval               science'               and               of               'early               modern               science.'"[viii]               This               presumed               continuity               ignores               the               existence               of               natural               philosophy               as               a               distinct               discipline,               independent               of               science.

In               fact,               a               demarcation               existed               between               the               two               models.

Simon               Schaffer               posited               "The               end               of               natural               philosophy               was               accompanied               by               the               appearance               of               models               of               discovery               which               appealed               to               discipline               and               to               genius,               and               which               have               dominated               theories               of               science               ever               since."[ix]               Similarly,               William               Whewell               argued               that               the               emergence               of               trained               scientists               signaled               the               close               of               natural               philosophy.[x]
               Philisophia               naturalis,               or               natural               philosophy,               as               demonstrated,               differed               from               science               in               a               multitude               of               ways.

Extant               prior               to               the               modern               development               of               science,               natural               philosophy               applied               to               the               objective               study               of               nature               and               the               universe.

First               constructed               by               Robert               Boyle               in               1686,               natural               philosophy               only               gained               connotation               as               an               entity               distinct               from               science               after               his               death,               although               modern               historians               apply               it               to               earlier               historical               figures.

Considered               the               forerunner               of               natural               science,               natural               philosophy               often               operated               in               conjunction               with               theology               and               other               philosophical               tools.

Cunningham               characterized               it               as               the               study               of               "God's               achievements,               God's               intentions,               God's               purposes,               God's               messages               to               man."[xi]               The               divine-humanity               of               Christ-the               simultaneous               activity               of               the               two               natures-nicely               embodies               the               cognitive               juxtaposition               evident               during               this               time.

Frequently,               theological               or               spiritual               questions               fueled               natural               investigation.

For               example,               Charlotte               Methuen               claims               that,               "certain               formulations               of               the               doctrine               of               providence,               with               its               assumption               that               God               both               created               and               sustained               the               world               for               the               good               of               its               human               inhabitants;               could               provide               an               impulse               towards               the               study               of               the               natural               world."[xii]               In               terms               of               logic:               God               created               the               natural               world.

A               greater               understanding               of               nature               provided               a               greater               understanding               of               God's               creation;               thus               a               greater               understanding               of               God.
               An               important               distinction               between               the               contemporary               concept               of               science               and               its               Renaissance               progenitors               reflects               science's               symbiotic               relationship               with               theology               (devoid               of               course               in               today's               concept).

In               fact,               during               the               Renaissance,               science               and               theology               operated               homogeneously               (represented               by               the               term               natural               philosophy),               espoused               under               the               genre               of               natural               sciences.

The               study               of               natural               philosophy               incorporated               intellectual               and               philosophical               conventions               instigated               by               theological               concerns,               much               in               contrast               to               the               modern,               secular               definition               as               a               systematic               arrangement               of               knowledge               of               the               physical               or               material               world,               gained               through               observation               and               experimentation,               and               exhibiting               the               operation               of               general               laws.

The               inextricable               connection               between               theology               and               nature               in               Renaissance               philosophy               made               it               impossible               to               study               either               independently.

Historians               tend               to               draw               on               a               contemporary               base               of               knowledge               when               studying               science's               history.

Historian               Charles               Webster               explains               that,               "Conclusions               about               the               independence               of               scientific               activity...are               based               not               on               the               impartial               and               exhaustive               examination               of               evidence,               but               are               rather               dictated               by               the               requirements               of               current               ideology,               and               describe               not               the               relationship               which               actually               existed,               but               the               relationship               which               it               is               felt               ought               to               have               existed               on               the               basis               of               present-day               opinion               about               the               methodology               of               science."[xiii]
               The               ability               to               classify               the               methods               of               earlier               practitioners               as               incongruent               with               modern               conventions               provides               the               opportunity               to               fruitfully               explore               the               relationship               between               natural               philosophy               and               theology.

Congruently,               Renaissance               students               inspired               by               Aristotle,               classified               sciences               into               three               "speculative               sciences."               The               speculative               sciences               included               natural               science               (physics),               mathematics,               and               metaphysics               (philosophy               or               theology).[xiv].
               The               nineteenth               century               witnessed               science's               emergence               as               a               discipline               free               of               theology               or               religion.

This               split               enabled               the               relationship               between               science               and               religion               to               exist,               although               some               boundaries               tended               to               blur.

But,               for               the               first               time,               institutions               of               science               employed               scientific               practitioners               independent               of               clerical               influences.

Science,               as               an               independent               entity               espoused               a               professionalism.

The               British               Association               for               the               Advancement               of               Science               appeared               in               the               1830s,               followed               by               others.

As               science               professionalized,               encompassing               the               various               disciplines               of               empirical               thought,               a               new               set               of               professional               commitments               and               responsibilities               materialized.

Increasingly,               the               clergy               reluctantly               relinquished               the               hegemony               they               held               over               the               wonders               of               nature.

A.W.

Benn               noted,               "A               great               part               of               the               reverence               once               given               to               priests               and               to               their               stories               of               an               unseen               universe               has               been               transformed               to               the               astronomer,               the               geologist,               the               physician,               and               the               engineer."[xv]               By               the               start               of               the               twentieth               century,               science               stood               devoid               of               its               former               ethical               and               theological               partners.

The               "wonders               of               nature"               became               the               "wonders               of               science."               [xvi]
               Similar               to               the               discourse               on               the               history               of               science,               scholars               approximate               the               foundation               of               religion,               in               its               modern               understanding,               to               the               relatively               recent               period               of               the               European               Enlightenment.

Wilfred               Cantwell               Smith               describes               the               origination,               writing,               "The               concept               'religion,'               then,               in               the               West               has               evolved.

Its               evolution               has               included               a               long-range               development               that               we               may               term               a               process               of               reification:               mentally               making               religion               into               a               thing,               gradually               coming               to               conceive               it               as               an               objective               systematic               entity."[xvii]               This               'systematic               entity'               shifted               focus               from               devotion               to               the               search               for               truth.

The               characterization               also               allowed               for               the               comparison               of               religions,               and               consequently               instigated               the               science               of               comparative               religion.

This               practice,               which               involved               the               categorization               of               people               and               their               beliefs,               provided               a               frame               of               reference               for               Western               securitization.

Subsequent               to               the               Age               of               Discovery,               and               to               the               fabrication               of               'religion,'               Western               thought               in               the               nineteenth               century               recognized               the               "birth"               of               other               religions:               Hinduism,               Taoism,               Buddhism,               and               Confucianism;               all               of               which               existed               much               earlier.

But               the               'creation'               of               religion               allowed               for               the               distinguishment               of               unique               bodies               of               faith.[xviii]
               The               nineteenth               century,               as               it               represented               the               emergence               of               science               as               an               independent               entity,               also               recognized               religion               as               an               institution               free               of               science.

With               science               and               religion               both               autonomous               entities,               the               urge               to               perpetuate               the               existence               of               conflict               between               the               two               became               attractive.

Advocates               of               the               nascent               scientific               movement               saw               the               political               benefit               of               pitting               their               cause               against               the               hegemonic               institution               of               the               Church,               giving               birth               to               the               science-religion               apposition               myth.

This               myth               claims               that               a               fundamental               rift               between               the               institutions               existed               and               has               fomented               over               the               course               of               this               tenuous               relationship.

Whether               extant               during               the               nascent               stages               of               the               relationship               or               not,               the               two               institutions               clearly               evolved               into               separate               entities,               independent               of               the               other,               and               sometimes               occupying               positions               of               opposition.
               The               development               of               theology,               neglected               so               far,               also               played               an               important               role               in               the               science/religion               discussion.

As               with               these               previous               terms,               the               relatively               young               "theology"               appeared               as               a               new               discipline               during               the               Renaissance.

First               appearing               in               Plato's               Republic,               the               term               is               a               combination               of               theos,               meaning               god,               and               logos,               meaning               rational               utterance,               and               defined               as               reasoned               discourse               about               God.

Modern               theologians               study               the               history               of               religion,               religious               thought,               or               religious               traditions;               defend               doctrines               or               compare               religious               traditions.

During               the               Renaissance,               in               the               burgeoning               university               system,               theology               too               fell               under               the               auspice               of               science.

It               produced               firm               knowledge               (science),               prompting               scholars               to               consider               it               a               rational               object               (obviously               a               contradiction               in               today's               terms,               but               which               makes               sense               when               considering               this               developmental               stage               of               theology               relied               on               reason               rather               than               on               faith).

This               sense               still,               however,               conflicts               with               the               modern               usage               of               the               term.[xix]
               Histories               of               science               scholars               often               use               theology               interchangeable               with               religion.

The               terms,               however,               are               not               synonymous.

The               first               espouses               the               characteristics               of               a               discipline,               or               mechanism.

The               latter,               a               term               which               comes               along               much               later               and               that               describes               an               objective               systematic               entity.

The               birth               of               theology               as               a               discipline               signaled               an               interest               in               the               objective               study               of               God               in               the               state               of               scientific               discovery               during               this               time.

This               context               provided               a               nonbelligerent               atmosphere               for               theology               to               achieve               its               purpose.
               Mirroring               the               evolution               of               the               relationship               between               science               and               religion,               theology               transformed               from               a               scientific               discipline               involved               in               the               investigation               of               God               and               nature               to               one               completely               devoid               of               science,               preoccupied               with               the               pursuit               of               truth               through               scripture               and               the               study               of               religion.

During               the               Renaissance,               theologies               function               coincided               with               that               of               the               relationship               of               science               and               religion               in               natural               philosophy.

The               trinity               of               these               concepts               comprised               the               unique               confluence               of               this               period.
               The               Renaissance               distinguished               itself               by               creating               an               atmosphere               amicable               to               the               confluence               of               religion,               science,               and               theology.

The               harmony               of               these               three               ideas,               although               short               lived,               made               possible               the               growth               and               emergence               of               each               as               independent               entities.

This               harmony               of               these               three               ideas,               although               short               lived,               made               possible               the               growth               and               emergence               of               each               as               independent               entities.

This               harmony,               the               product               of               an               intersection               of               classical               thought               and               Christian               hegemony-altogether               impossible               in               contemporary               Western               society-becomes               unsurprising               when               considered               in               the               context               of               an               epoch               dominated               by               the               Catholic               Church.

The               picture               becomes               clearer               also               with               the               understanding               of               the               evolution               of               these               three               entities.

The               push               towards               recognition               of               natural               philosophy,               its               importance,               and               its               distinction               from               the               modern               concept               of               science               may               provide               a               demystification               of               the               conflict               between               science               and               religion               and               the               ambiguous               nature               of               scientific               history.
               'Science'               and               'Religion,'               during               the               Renaissance               coexisted               as               a               homogenous               entity               in               natural               philosophy,               and               functioned               as               a               tool               of               theological               investigation.

This               state               of               homogeneity               prevented               a               relationship               between               the               two,               however,               until               he               establishment               of               science               and               religion               as               separate               entities-in               the               seventeenth               and               nineteen               centuries,               respectively-allowed               a               relationship               to               establish.

The               emergence               of               their               independence               also               signaled               fundamental               changes               in               their               functions               and               orientations.

These               fundamental               changes               precipitated               the               foundation               of               their               modern               decedents,               and               complicated               their               historical               discourse.

Although               often               overlooked               in               the               history               of               science,               the               Renaissance               stands               as               a               unique               confluence               of               ideas               beneficial               to               the               comprehension               of               the               Middle               and               late               Middle               Ages.
               Notes
               [i]               Lewis               W.

Spitz,               The               Renaissance               and               Reformation               Movements,               Vol.

1               (St.

Louis:               1987):               180;
               Herbert               Butterfield,               The               Origins               of               Modern               Science               (New               York:               1960):               37.
               [ii]               Peter               Harrison,               "'Science'               and               'Religion':               Constructing               the               Boundaries,"               Journal               of               Religion,               Vol.

86,               No.

1               (Jan.

2006):               82.
               [iii]               Andrew               Cunningham,               "The               Identity               of               Natural               Philosophy.

A               Response               to               Edward               Grant,"               Early               Science               and               Medicine,               Vol.

5,               No.

3.

(2000):               260.
               [iv]               G.

E.

R.

Lloyd,               Early               Greek               Science               (New               York:               Norton,               1970),               iv.
               [v]               Harrison,               82.
               [vi]               Harrison,               81.
               [vii]               Harrison,               86.
               [viii]               Cunningham,               260.
               [ix]               Simon               Schaffer,               "Scientific               Discoveries               and               the               End               of               Natural               Philosophy,"               Social               Studies               of               Science,               Vol.

16,               No.

3.

(Aug.,               1986):               407.
               [x]               Whewell,               William,               History               of               the               Inductive               Sciences               from               the               Earliest               to               the               Present               Time               V2               (London:               2006):               16.
               [xi]               Andrew               Cunningham,               "Getting               the               Game               Right:               Some               Plain               Words               on               the               Identity               and
               Invention               of               Science,"               Studies               in               the               History               and               Philosophy               of               Science               19               (1988):               365.
               [xii]               Methuen,               Charlotte,               "Lex               Naturae               And               Ordo               Naturae               in               the               Thought               of               Philip               Melanchthon,"               Reformation               &               Renaissance               Review:               Journal               of               the               Society               for               Reformation               Studies,               Iss.

3               (2000):               111.
               [xiii]               Charles               Webster,               The               Great               Instauration:               Science,               Medicine,               and               Reform,               1626-1660               (London:               1975),               494;               The               discussion               on               the               term               scientia               are               taken               from:               Cunningham,               "The               Identity               of               Natural               Philosophy.

A               Response               to               Edward               Grant,"260-261.
               [xiv]               Robert               W.

Schmidt,               S.J.,               The               Domain               of               Logic               According               to               Saint               Thomas               Aquinas               (The               Hague,               1966):               16-18.
               [xv]               A.

W.

Benn,               A               History               of               English               Rationalism               in               the               Nineteenth               Century,               2               vols.

(London:
               Longmans,               Green,               &               Todd,               1906),               1:198.

Cited               in:               Harrison,               88.
               [xvi]               Harrison,               87.
               [xvii]               Harrison,               91.
               [xviii]               Harrison,               92-93.
               [xix]               Cunningham,               260-261.






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